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<title>10-Minute Timer</title>
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<h1><img src="../images/elect.gif" align="middle" width="145" height="75" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9">A Ten-Minute Timer That Just Won't Quit<img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="middle" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10"></h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>In September, 1980 (pp. 34-38), <i>QST</i> printed a little 10-minute timer circuit that is still (Jan. 2000) in use in my shack. Requests for the circuit diagram led me to reproduce the original diagram--although there are some optional additions noted in other diagrams in the article. (Getting the entire <i>QST</i> CDROM collection from 1915-1995 is a good archive for the shelf.)</p>
<p><img src="10mt-1.gif" width="1020" height="656"></p>
<p>The diagram may be large for the screen, but can be "screen copied" in pieces for downloading. The size is necessary to preserve the legibility of the detail.</p>
<p>Since the diagram is self-explanatory as to function and descriptions of 555/556 operation abound, I shall add no detail here, but refer you to the original article and various data sheets. Low-current and other updated versions of the 556 chip may be available and should be used. Some of them may require adjustment of components used in linking the sections, etc. However, the basic concept is still sound, despite the age of the circuit.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 01-29-00. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. First published in</i> QST <i>September, 1980. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<p><a href="../radio.html"><img src="../images/return.gif" align="bottom" width="40" height="40"> Go to Amateur Radio Page</a></p>
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<title>The Serviceberry Tree</title>
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<h1>The Serviceberry Tree</h1>
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<p><img src="amel-1.jpg" align="right" vspace="5" hspace="5" width="159" height="182"></p>
<p>The serviceberry is a small flowering and berry-producing tree that is prized by wildlife as a source of nourishment and protection. Although once exceptionally widespread in the U.S., we do not hear of it as much as we should. Therefore, I have gathered the following notes as an introduction to this fine addition to any habitat for birds and other wildlife.</p>
<p><b>Genus</b>: <b>Amelanchier</b> (meaning blood-red-referring to the bark of new branches that emerge)</p>
<p><b>Common names</b> (from the <i>Audobon N.A. Trees</i> book, the <i>Little Golden Guide to Trees</i>, and <i>Trees of the Smokies</i>):</p>
<ul>
<li><b>Sarvis</b>-a very old name for the serviceberry</li>
<li><b>Serviceberry</b>-on the old (colonial) frontier, because it would bloom in early spring, about the time circuit-riding preachers would hold the first religious services of the year or the time the ground thawed to permit burials from winter deaths</li>
<li><b>Shadblow</b> and <b>Shadbush</b>-in colonial times, the blooms appeared about the time that the shad were running</li>
<li><b>Juneberry</b>-because in that month, the berries would appear</li>
</ul>
<p><img src="amel-2.jpg" align="left" vspace="5" hspace="25" width="180" height="381"></p>
<p>There are several major species of the genus amelanchier (in the <b>Rose</b> family):</p>
<ul>
<li><b>Alnifolia</b> and <b>Canadensis</b> are mostly (smaller) western types</li>
<li><b>Arborea</b> or "downy" serviceberry is common in the SE area and throughout the eastern U.S. The leaves are like those of the birch, with a downy underside.</li>
<li><b>Sanguinea</b> or "roundleaf" serviceberry is common in coastal areas (both northeastern shore areas and Great Lake areas), as well as in the Smokies. The leaves are round but toothed, with a smooth underside.</li>
<li><b>Laevis</b> or "smooth" serviceberry is listed in <i>Trees of the Smokies</i>, with leaves visually resembling those of the downy, but smooth underneath.</li>
</ul>
<p>The flowers bloom as early or earlier than redbuds. The 5-petal white flowers make a great display while the leaves are not fully unfurled.</p>
<p>The tree has the appearance of a large shrub because it often grows with multiple trunks, each fairly thin, emerging from the same root set. In this property, it resembles a crepe myrtle. However, it can grow to from 20' (roundleaf at some altitude) to 40' (downy).</p>
<p>The summer leaves are green, but autumn foliage can range from red to golden, depending on the variety. They appear to hold their foliage well.</p>
<p><img src="amel-3.jpg" align="right" vspace="5" hspace="5" width="151" height="182"></p>
<p>The berries are small, but sweet and edible by everyone, ranging from birds to critters to bears and deer (with the latter two also eating some of the foliage in the wild) to humans. Serviceberries were once common enough that folks made serviceberry pies in season.</p>
<p>The following website have pictures and accounts of the serviceberry in its various forms across the U.S. My Thanks to Tom Shutters, K4FJW, for performing the search that turned them up.</p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110207094240/http://www.cnr.vt.edu:80/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=193" target="_blank">www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/aalnifolia.htm</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210182649/http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/dendrology/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=9" target="_blank">www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/aarborea.htm</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="http://ostermiller.org/tree/serviceberry.html" target="_blank">ostermiller.org/tree/serviceberry.html</a></p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021203215555/http://www.mpelectric.com/treebook/fact15.html" target="_blank">www.mpelectric.com/treebook/fact15.html</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/commontr/serviceb.htm" target="_blank">www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/commontr/serviceb.htm</a></p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111210020225/http://www.mrgrow.com/plant/plant497.htm" target="_blank">www.mrgrow.com/plant/plant497.htm</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151218131702/http://www.yale.edu/fes505b/shadbush.html" target="_blank">www.yale.edu/fes505b/shadbush.html</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040621222952/http://www.cmi.k12.il.us/Urbana/projects/apple/service/bpark/serviceberry.html" target="_blank">www.cmi.k12.il.us/Urbana/projects/apple/service/bpark/serviceberry.html</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
<p><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324153414/http://www.csuchico.edu:80/~rcooke/serviceberry.html" target="_blank">www.csuchico.edu/~rcooke/serviceberry.html</a> (web.archive.org).</p>
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<title>Socio-Cybernetic Modeling</title>
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<h1>On Socio-Cybernetic Modeling</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik</h3>
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<p><i>Since the original private publication of this paper in the early 1970s, the work of refining the correlations between the entropic system pair that is the subject of the original work has proceeded to reveal an ever tightening cohesiveness to the fundamental premises of the study. Advances in computer hardware and programming since the 70s have permitted fuller realization of all of the facets and features of a committee system that have been categorized to this date (January, 1999). For example, as computer speed and storage have increased, programming (or procedural counterparts) have enlarged to fill the space and extend the time to its original limits and beyond. Ostensibly designed to speed results, the end result is often slower than with older, slower machines that somehow managed to get their work done. Likewise, the interactions of task-specific programming and the overall operating system reflect virtually all of the interactions of committees in almost any organizational hierarchy. Inter-committee and inter-program relationships--both beneficial and detrimental when viewed from a perspective of the goals of each--reflect more detailed correlations than were ever thought possible in the beginning. The list might go on indefinitely.</i></p>
<p><i>Therefore, it has seemed useful to make the original paper once more available to those interested in modeling entropic system pairs in a rigorous manner. Much research remains to be done, but here is where it began.</i></p>
<p><i>LBC, January, 1999</i></p>
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<p>This paper presents the fundamental stages of modeling two equivalent entropic frames of reference. As with any paired frames, one may analogize from one to the other and back. This procedure proves especially profitable in developing suitable symbolic and mathematical models of computer systems and committee systems.</p>
<p>A simple example illustrates the principle. The notorious expression,</p>
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<p>which translates for computer programmers as "garbage in, garbage out," may be expressed more rigorously as</p>
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<p>where G<sub>o</sub> is garbage out, G<sub>i</sub> is garbage in, and k is a constant of proportionality (as it will be throughout this exercise). The comparable, but non-equivalent, expression for a committee system is</p>
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<p>where V means "any input." A little thought over the difference yields the realization that equation (2) applies to computer systems without reference to the operator. Since a computer system consists of one or more computers plus one or more operators, equation (2) is a limited subsystem case. A full computer system answers to equation (3).</p>
<h3>1. Entropic Frames of Reference (COMSYS)</h3>For either system (COMSYS), the equivalency of the output value equations leads to the conclusion that
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<p>where COMSYS<sub>o</sub> is the assignable system output value and COMSYS<sub>i</sub> is the assignable system input value. Moreover, equation (4) defines both systems as entropic frames of reference.</p>
<p>If the conclusion expressed in equation (4) is to hold, it must have consequences that are valid for either system. Consequences of the precise order required abound. Of most central interest for modeling is the relationship between P and S<sub>o</sub>, where P indicates the length of the procedural or programmatic involvement during system activation and S<sub>o</sub> is the significance of the output of the system activation occurrence.</p>
<p>Most generally, the relationship between P and S<sub>o</sub> is given by</p>
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<p>For each system type, there are closely related but separable interpretations. For a committee system (COMSYS<sub>m</sub>), the applicable expression is</p>
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<p>where P<sub>r</sub> is the length in time units of the procedural determinations and S<sub>so</sub> is the significance of the substantive output. For a computer system (COMSYS<sub>p</sub>), the applicable expression is</p>
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<p>where P<sub>g</sub> is the length of the program and S<sub>do</sub> is the significance of the data output.</p>
<p>P, whether interpreted as P<sub>r</sub> or as P<sub>g</sub>, is essentially a time measure. The change of output significance, C, for notable periods of system activation is given by</p>
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<p>where t is an applicable general time measure and S<sub>i</sub> is a measure of the input significance. The rate of change provides a measure of system effectiveness, E, and is given by</p>
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<p>An accompanying graph (<b>Fig. 1</b>) provides an illustration of the results. Given an arbitrary significance of 1 to the input for any COMSYS activation, C and E will vary as shown. Besides the steep decline of efficiency in a short time, the net result is the leveling off of change and effectiveness at a level which approaches 0. Instantaneous rates of change, C<sub>i</sub>, and rates of effectiveness, E<sub>i</sub>, are, of course, given by</p>
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<p>and</p>
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<p>Real effectiveness (the rate of change of significance) and apparent effectiveness mirror each other. Graphically, this is shown in <b>Fig. 2</b>. Apparent effectiveness represents the measure assignable to the system self-appraisals of output significance, which is in no case to be confused with the self- or system appraisal of any individual element in the system. In general terms, apparent effectiveness, E<sub>a</sub>, is given by the equation,</p>
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<p>Apparent change, C<sub>a</sub>, likewise, is given by</p>
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<p>For either system, So, the measure of output significance, is limited to values equal to or less than S<sub>i</sub>.</p>
<h3>2. Computer Systems Modeling (COMSYS<sub>p</sub>)</h3>The general equations governing systems are subject to individual refinement. In the process of refinement, variations arise between expression appropriate to each system just to the degree that either a. the two systems are dis-analogous or b. the development of suitable categories is lacking. For computer systems (COMSYS<sub>p</sub>), equation (5b) holds, namely,
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<p>or rewritten</p>
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<p>where P<sub>g</sub> is the length of the program and S<sub>do</sub> is the significance of the data output. For real systems, this equation is modified by a measure of operator efficiency, epsilon, such that</p>
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<p>where n is the number of operators and gamma<sub>1</sub>, gamma<sub>2</sub>, . . .gamma<sub>n</sub> are the effectiveness ratings of the individual operators, each of which must be given in within the limits</p>
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<p>for any operator, gamma<sub>iota</sub>. Together with equation (5b1), the exact expression for S<sub>o</sub> of COMSYS<sub>p</sub> is</p>
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<p>This equation, of course, provides a significance measure of the output of the special case including one and only one computer. Its limiting value is the instance (real or hypothetical) of a single operator with an effectiveness rating of 1, which forces the equation to the form</p>
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<p>For rho computers which are interactive, the equation becomes</p>
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<p>where all factors are as previously defined and C<sub>rho</sub> is the total possible combinations of computers.</p>
<p>Even equation (15) makes certain assumptions. First, it is assumed that operators within any given system are exclusive; that is, no operator forms part of a system with more than one computer. Interactive operators would require a correction factor within equation (15). Second, any necessary interaction programming is absorbed within the P<sub>g</sub> measure for each computer. Precision in this regard would also require a correction factor. However, equation (15) will be sufficiently accurate for most purposes, and the derivation of corrective factors is left as an exercise for the reader.</p>
<p>The interactive computer super-system presents many difficulties for accurate modeling. For example, under some forms of standard programming, computers will assume data not in evidence. Different CPUs with alternate instruction sets, even operating under the same operating system, may do this without necessarily alerting the operator to the altered data. Variations occur due to differences both at the level of translating program language into machine processes and in the conduct of machine processes.</p>
<p>Without suitable correctives, the assumptions and the possible errors stemming from them complicate the evaluation of the output of a super- system. Analogously, members and subcommittees make similar operational variations which complicate the evaluation of a committee's output. Moreover, such members and subcommittees often make assumptions in the absence of data without informing either the chair or the hierarchical "user" (administrator, executive, etc.) of the committee.</p>
<p>The resultant errors are closely related to the concept set or language processed by the COMSYS, whether computer or committee. In complex machines with sub-units and multiple computing units (CPUs), the analogy to committees, with subcommittees and individual members--all active language users--is close to exact.</p>
<h3>3. Committee Systems Modeling (COMSYS<sub>m</sub>)</h3>For committees,
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<p>or</p>
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<p>where P<sub>r</sub> is the length in time units of the procedural determinations and S<sub>so</sub> is the significance of the substantive output. More generally and as a limiting case,</p>
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<p>However, committees, as previously noted, have both subcommittees and members. Thus, the limiting case is more precisely specified for real circumstances as</p>
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<p>where beta accounts for subsystem activation.</p>
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<p>where mu is the number of members, nu is the number of subcommittees, and the expression C<sub>nu</sub>+1 represents the total combinations of subcommittees plus the committee as a whole. The final equation is thus</p>
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<p>As with computer systems, equation (19) is limited by assumptions. If, for example, subcommittees have unique procedures of their own, a correction factor will be needed within equation (19). This derivation is left to the reader as an exercise.</p>
<p>The nature of the correction factor will depend in part upon the nature of the subcommittee procedural activities. Robert's Rules of Order (RROO) is the most common committee program. If used uniformly throughout proceedings of all subcommittees and of the committee itself, then a generalized accounting correction factor is possible for equation (19). If, on the other hand, special procedural rules are introduced into one or more of the subcommittees, two analyses become required. first, the effects of the deviant procedure on the subcommittee output must be evaluated. Second, the compatibility of the sub-outputs with each other--when produced under differing procedures--must be evaluated. Just as some deviants of the same program may turn out to be incompatible, so too may be outputs resulting from the use of variant procedures. The analogy of FORTRAN and RROO is more than accidental.</p>
<p>An interesting historical phenomenon is that although there exist no operational rules for human relationships to computer systems (H<sub>r</sub>COMSYS<sub>p</sub>), ancient operational rules exist for human relationships to committees (H<sub>r</sub>COMSYS<sub>m</sub>). This fact owes probably to the antiquity of committees and the recentness of computers. The more recent the development of a system, the more complex the rules, which is evident from a comparison of the operating instructions for a computer with its mix of procedural and relational matters and operational rules for committees.</p>
<p>Operational rules, of course, are imperatives often representing the accumulated experiential wisdom of a group and may be passed from one generation to the next in aural or written form. When distorted due to accident in the transmission or by virtue of motivated obscurity, such operational rules may comprise one core of magic and witchcraft. In more pure form, they undergird what has become modern science. To this day, we persist in calling them "laws."</p>
<p>Perhaps the most ancient extant operational rules come from a collection of sayings originating--or at least aggregating--along the Danube River. The following list is freely translated and updated in light of RROO.</p>
<h3>Laws (Operational Rules) Governing Human Relationships to Committees</h3>
<p>1. If asked to serve on a committee, refuse.</p>
<p>2. If forced to serve on a committee, be absent.</p>
<p>3. If forced to attend committee meetings, be silent.</p>
<p>4. If forced to speak, move for a termination of discussion.</p>
<p>5. If the motion to terminate is defeated, move to remand the issue to its source for action.</p>
<p>6. If the motion to remand is defeated, move for adjournment and/or disbandment.</p>
<p>7. If all else fails, leave the meeting on the grounds of having another committee meeting to attend.</p>
<p>The historical list of operational rules contains numerous additional rules,, laws, and advice, much of it ad hoc at first sight. for example, there is a cryptic note:</p>
<p>8. What you chair, you must sit in.</p>
<p>More problematical is the rule,</p>
<p>9. To be absent is to be elected,</p>
<p>which seems initially to contradict rule 2., unless interpreted as an implicit power which may force attendance. A recent (1970s) <i>New Yorker</i> cartoon has perhaps made the only significant summary contribution to this ancient list with its caption:</p>
<p>10. There are no great individuals, only great committees.</p>
<p>For socio-cybernetic modeling, perhaps the most mathematically interesting rule is 7. Whatever the case among those who created this aggregate of rules, in modern institutions, following this rule will never create ethical guilt for lying. It follows from adherence to this rule that the existence of some certain number of committees will have identical consequences of there being no committees, since the number will effectively preclude the conduct of business, indeed, preclude even strictly procedural activation. In the abstract, the equation for this situation is</p>
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<p>For the real world, some finite time, t, is required even to record presence, convene, and adjourn. Therefore, there is an empirical equivalent of the abstract equation which takes the form</p>
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<p>where COM<sub>theta</sub> is a quantity of committees so large that the effective t allowable to each is less then the t required to convene, record, and adjourn, or</p>
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<p>which thus defines the threshold for the maximum possible number of real committees.</p>
<p>The threshold condition leads to some interesting consequences, namely,</p>
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<p>and</p>
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<p>etc., or more generally,</p>
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<p>This result may be of only historical interest for inter-cultural studies, since for any given time and place, there is one and only one number x such that x is theta.</p>
<h3>4. The Future of Socio-Cybernetic Modeling</h3>Every set of models must have empirical application if it is to have more than idle interest. The present case is no exception. The application of these models rests on certain fundamental principles.
<p>1. There is an analogy between COMSYS<sub>p</sub> and COMSYS<sub>m</sub> (and any other COMSYS member). In other words, all members of COMSYS are equivalent entropic frames of reference.</p>
<p>Several points follow from this principle alone. First, every equation for COMSYS<sub>p</sub> may have an analogue in COMSYS<sub>m</sub>, and vice versa. In exact form, such equations will be equivalent. Thus, every extant relationship within one member set provides a potential insight into another member set. Likewise, every inexactitude in one member set may find a means of correction in another member set. Second, the analogy may be systemic rather than particularistic, thereby permitting individuality to the equations describing elements of the system.</p>
<p>2. Equivalent frames of reference are convertible.</p>
<p>Since what is herein modeled is an empiric reality, convertibility extends beyond the generation of conversion equations. There is, in effect, a potential for converted reality. Since both COMSYS<sub>p</sub> and COMSYS<sub>m</sub> are social realities with the same conceptual foundations, the possibility of merging adds itself to mere conversion. This fact makes possible the creation od scenarios of futuristic import.</p>
<p>For example, we earlier noted the limit theta to the possible number of committees. By principle 1, above, we should also seek an equivalent limit phi to the number of interacting computers. This limit may be a function of time t<sub>IA</sub> such that the addition of further computers does not permit passing beyond the ENTER-EXIT procedure into data processing. Future generations of computers may suppress the effect by increasing computer speed and by bypassing ENTER-EXIT procedures through common machine and program languages.</p>
<p>Such speed elevating procedures hold promise for committees in accord with principle 2. t<sub>CRA</sub> can be shortened in a number of ways. The most likely is through a merger of COMSYS<sub>m</sub> with COMSYS<sub>p</sub>. Thus, rather than requiring the physical co-presence of members, committees may convene via CRT terminals. Conference telephone calls already accomplish such ends. Computer terminals provide enhanced speed by automatically recording proceedings. Thus, the limit theta for committees can be increased by several orders of magnitude.</p>
<p>3. Every problem contains the seeds of its own solution.</p>
<p>The enhancement of the limit "theta" is close to reality. The next step, however, requires a review of the model equations set out herein. First, since S<sub>o</sub> = k (S<sub>i</sub>/P), and since no COMSYS exists without a significant P factor, the entropic limit, S<sub>o</sub> = S<sub>i</sub>, can never in practice be reached. In fact, the opposite limit, S<sub>o</sub> = 0, is the more likely prospect. Moreover, not only does P affect S<sub>o</sub> adversely, so too does beta, as noted in equations (17) through (19). likewise, COM<sub>0</sub>, or its equivalent, COM<sub>theta</sub>, is unlikely to be permanently achieved for two reasons. First, no COMSYS, once in existence, ever goes out of existence. Hence, COM<sub>0</sub> is unobtainable directly. Second, tactical gains in pressing the limit "theta" have appeared whenever needed throughout history. Hence, exhausting the mechanical gains of computer terminal meetings is not likely to exhaust theta.</p>
<p>The solution lies in a systems merger of a more complete sort. Systems merger would include the following steps.</p>
<p>1. For every COMSYS<sub>m</sub>, let there be a COMSYS<sub>p</sub> assigned each member such that</p>
<p>a. each COMSYS<sub>p</sub> is equipped with identical machines and languages;</p>
<p>b. RROO is made part of the COMSYS<sub>m</sub> and the COMSYS<sub>p</sub>;</p>
<p>c. every computer of COMSYS<sub>m/p</sub> (merged COMSYS<sub>m</sub> and COMSYS<sub>p</sub>) is interactive.</p>
<p>2. Let operational rules 3 through 7 be programmed into every computer of COMSYS<sub>m/p</sub>.</p>
<p>3. Let each computer memory of COMSYS<sub>m/p</sub> contain a large quantity of random discussion statements, key word selected by rapid scan of the preceding discussion statement in the meeting record such that</p>
<p>a. for any point of discussion, every system scans;</p>
<p>b. scanning proceeds from end to beginning, with the first to hit a key word being the next to discuss; and</p>
<p>c. in the event of identical timing, discussion goes to the memory with the longest elapsed time since its last recorded discussion.</p>
<p>4. Let all meetings occur via preset timing and system keying.</p>
<p>5. Let adjournment be a function of completion of business or of falling below a quorum due to other meetings.</p>
<p>6. Let the program and the procedure be as long as human intervention can make them, with all terminals dedicated in non-meeting hours to extending both and to automatically introducing extensions as meeting topics.</p>
<p>7. Let the "off" switch be removed from each terminal.</p>
<p>The immediate consequences of these procedures will be to place all matters of substance and action into the hands of individual humans. However, since COMSYS<sub>m/p</sub> would no longer require human relationship in order to function, there ought to be plenty of time to perform these simple tasks of substance.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 1-20-99. &COPY; L. B. Cebik. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1><img src="../images/hat.gif" align="middle" width="72" height="84" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9">Why Call "CQ"?<img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="middle" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10"></h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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This morning (June 19, 1998), a thoughtful and oddly interesting question arrived via e-mail: what is the deepest reason for someone to call "CQ" when that person has no idea of who may answer or whether anyone will answer at all? The following notes were my reply.<br>
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Peter,
<p>I do not know if there is any single deepest reason for calling "CQ." I can only guess at such deep motivations, but here are a few thoughts.</p>
<p>For the brand new ham, there is a sense of wonder at the possibility of having a radio signal actually being heard and responded to. That alone is enough motivation to try, just to see what happens. In a way, it parallels the SETI project efforts to listen to outer space, just in case there is something to be heard and the efforts to place special identifying materials on some deep probe space craft, just in case someone out there may someday find the probe.</p>
<p>I also suspect that as the new ham becomes experienced, two things happen. First, wonder turns into curiosity, especially as replies become routine, but from where they come and from whom they come remain unknowns until the reply actually happens. Second, the first response has an excitement that can become addictive in the sense of one wanting to repeat the first experience over and over again.</p>
<p>Although subsequent experiences are never quite like the first, since they do not have that initial anxiety of the totally unknown attached, new adventures into calling "CQ" have new dimensions, especially the human dimension. Every reply creates a new strand in a web of links among widely separated but still kindred spirits. Amateur radio, despite its internal disputes and diversity of activities, is still a community of human beings that cuts across all divisions of race, nationality, religion, and other things that divide us around the world. A "CQ" knows no such boundaries: our mutual interest in radio communications does not even break barriers: the barriers are simply not there. (I am sure this is truer in your region of the world, where boundaries are close in, than in the US, where a ham might spend his entire career talking only to folks within his own country.)</p>
<p>Interest in radio communications may offer a further contributing factor to the motivation for calling "CQ." Such interest tends to mark a person out as an individual, someone a little different from most of his or her friends, neighbors, and co-workers. Hence, there is a natural desire for camaraderie, a sense that one is not alone, but linked to a community. That is why hams tend to form clubs and anticipate "eye-ball QSOs." That same urge for linkage results in calling "CQ' as an invitation to and a hope for a new strand in the linkage that tells us we are not alone and that hence gives meaningfulness to all our efforts to master the art, science, and craft of radio communications.</p>
<p>Linkage to a community brings out in us at least two different and opposing urges, and they occur in different proportions in different individuals. One urge is to compete with others in our broad community. so we compete in contests for points or for countries worked, or for anything else. The other urge is to help, aid, assist any other member of the community who needs what we may have to offer: advice, knowledge, materials, other links we may have to services not available--the list is endless. The only condition I have ever known a true ham to place on rendering assistance was this: NOT that the recipient repay, but rather that the recipient be prepared to assist some other who may someday need what can be rendered.</p>
<p>Both of these twin urges make calling "CQ" more meaningful, for we may never know in advance whether we might receive a reply that either helps our score or gives us an opportunity to help someone else.</p>
<p>I personally believe that the most mature reason for calling "CQ" is the chance to be of assistance, even if that is only to give another the pleasure of a QSO, but more if the one who replies needs more. That is why I maintain my web site--it is one way in which I can help those in our community of hams who may need what is there.</p>
<p>There are, I am sure, those who would like to invert my remarks by leaning too heavily on the idea of being alone and seeing the "CQ" as a way to merely relieve loneliness. But I think one can only make this move at the expense of ignoring the initial sense of wonder and the more mature and thoughtful dimensions of being a ham and calling "CQ." It is at root not a demand for an answer, but an invitation to communicate, and that communication is a sharing. Sometimes we share only perfunctory data; sometimes we share news, information and ideas; sometimes we share joys and successes; and sometimes we share needs and solutions. In short, we share all that makes us a community, although not too much at any one time. Granted, some few may make "CQ" into a demand for reply, or even into a desperate plea for a reply, but for most, it is an invitation and a question: How can I assist?</p>
<p>I do not know if this is responsive to your question, but it is how I think about "CQ." In fact, over my 45 years as a ham, I have not too often called "CQ" myself (except to see of a quiet band had any listeners). Instead, I have tended to listen for "CQs" and replied to them. Listening is also a way of being ready to serve.</p>
<p>-73-</p>
<p>LB, W4RNL<br>
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<p><i>Updated 6-20-98. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i><br>
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<h1>PVC Gurneys for All Occasions</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>Roll-around carts or gurneys tend to come in two varieties: a. cheap, short-lived, and wobbly, or b. strong, durable, and expensive. Commercial grade good units run well over $100 and often over $200. The $20 to $50 units rarely last more than a year or so before the wheels go, the metal rusts, or something breaks under the loads we put on them.</p>
<p>The following notes describe some gurneys we designed and built for a special purpose: to hold Jean's wild bird rehabilitation cages. However, the general principles of the two major designs are applicable and adaptable to a wide variety of uses. So I am summarizing the thinking that went into them. Since they are not precisely an "antenna item," I am placing these notes in the first catch-all category of the index.</p>
<p>The drawings bear the initials "J. R." for Jean, since we designed the gurneys to hold a number of her cages. Our object, in part, was to elevate the cages so that there would be no stooping over to feed and care for orphaned and injured birds. However, we also wanted to be able to roll the cages into the sunlight on warm, good weather days and then to roll them back into the shop where the birds spent their time protected from bad weather and chill.</p>
<p>Because showers and other water are a way of life in bird rehabilitation, we also wanted the gurneys to be weather proof. Hence, except for the casters, there is almost no hardware in the gurneys--only Schedule 40 PVC (1.25" nominal diameter). As well, there are no openings into the PVC pipes, so the interior of the structure remains as dry as the day of assembly.</p>
<p>The key to making a PVC gurney is to collect many fixtures to go with the pipe itself. Ls handle the outside corners. Ts handle 3-way junctions for surfaces. Where you must go in a pair of directions, then one direction must be higher than the other. In a special gurney, we used Xs or cross junctions, along with a pair of 45-degree couplers. Of course, end caps are necessary for the leg bottoms. Before we finish, I shall show how we solved the challenge of applying caster to the end caps.</p>
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<p>The "Care Cage Gurneys 1-3" figure shows the piping and coupling layout for the most basic gurney. I have built several of these units in various sizes to handle different cage needs. As we look at the layout, we shall also discover why these units are adaptable to other uses.</p>
<p>The first thing to note is that many coupling, especially on the legs, abut each other. We handle this with a short length of PVC cemented into both couplings, using a length that the couplings totally hide. Incidentally, the double thickness of the coupling and the linking pipe piece makes an exceptionally strong joint. Of course, joint quality depends partly on our use of the right cleaner and cement.</p>
<p>Note also that a number of the adjacent Ts are at right angles to each other. My technique for making such joints is simple. Around the shop, I have pre-located a number of good right angles, for example, the floor and workbench legs. I insert dry a length of pipe in each direction. When I cement the joint, I quickly press the extensions against the right angle structure. It only takes a few seconds for PVC cement to weld the junction into a whole, so pre-planning where to go and what to do to establish a good right angle is essential. When cutting pipe lengths, remember to measure the amount of insertion length for each coupling so that you end up with the correct final dimensions.</p>
<p>Since the cages did not require a top surface (we used cable ties to secure the wire cages to the perimeter PVC), the structure is open with only a single cross member to keep the lengths of pipe at about 2' or under. This length is very sturdy. The bottom shelf is another matter, so you might give some preliminary thought on how you wish to use the area. We have used a variety of techniques to make the bottom area into storage space for rehabbing supplies, unused transportation cages, and various kinds of seeds for the large variety of birds that Jean took in. In one case, I took a scrap sheet of plywood--it happened to be 1/2" thick, but 3/8" thick stock would be very adequate--and by cutting notches in the corners for the legs, fit it into the lower space as a shelf. This option did not require any hardware, since the legs locked it into place.</p>
<p>On another version, I used some scrap 3/8" plywood that did not cover the entire space. However, a pair of small sheets, side by side, filled the area. These sheets required stainless steel (non-rusting) sheet metal screw to hold the shelf in place. You may as easily use coated steel or aluminum mesh or other shelving materials. However, be sure that all metal and hardware is non-rusting. As well, you may apply any of these ideas to the top level. In fact, you may wish to look at the stock of plastic bins available at Walmart, K-mart, etc. There are a number of very large units intended for under-bed storage. Hence, they have walls only about 6" high--a combination that makes a good unit for either the upper or lower level. Use a minimum number of sheet metal screws into the PVC rails to fix them in place.</p>
<p><img src="gurney-2.jpg" align="left" vspace="4" hspace="8" width="449" height="305"></p>
<p>The photograph to the left shows a 2-cage unit. (Yes, although almost invisible, there are birds in the cages. Those unfamiliar with wild bird rehabilitation should know that it requires a federal license to hold migratory songbirds in a cage, and then only for a limited period of rehabilitation. Many states--such as Tennessee--also require state licensure of facilities. However, state laws tend to be quite variable from state to state, with differing assigned jurisdictions, as well. In general, capturing native species of migratory song birds without such a license and purpose happens to be against the law. So if you are thinking of making your favorite songbird into a pet, please don't.) The objects in the cages are materials that Jean added as enrichments for the birds, each designed from her extensive observations of birds in the wild to be something that would get orphaned nestlings used to the typical habitat they would one day find when they were released.</p>
<p>Note that the top level of the gurney extends a few inches beyond the end legs. These extensions make convenient handles for rolling the gurney around. The amount of extension is a function of what makes a comfortable grip in your own application.</p>
<p><img src="gurney-3.jpg" align="right" vspace="4" hspace="8" width="325" height="255"></p>
<p>The next photo to the right shows the double-length cage that Jean designed and had built for her work. The cage is long enough so that very small song birds--such as chickadees, titmice, wrens, and sparrows-- can get some end-to-end flight exercise as a preliminary to being moved into flight cages or an aviary. During the peak of orphan nestling season (about April through August in Tennessee), the numbers of birds might increase to a load of 50. In these times, the long cage's center divider would roll into place, making 2 cages out of one (for species who by virtue of age difference or natural feistiness did not get along together).</p>
<p>The photo also shows the use of the lower shelf as a supply storage area. The bottom lining in the cage(s) above provides a natural umbrella over the shelf, so a plywood shelf is sufficient. However, if you use plastic or other materials for a bottom shelf, consider the following idea. Find containers with low walls but the largest areas that will fit in the space. Fasten these down to the rails. Then, for parts, provisions, or other items stored, let each item have its own plastic container that fits into the big container. These sub-containers should mesh together to make maximum use of the space and may have higher walls (that is, be deeper) than the low-walled retaining containers. There are a myriad of plastic containers available at very low prices, and the present-day quality of the plastic materials has reached the stage of being as durable as the basic frame.</p>
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<p>The next basic design for a gurney emerged from the need to hold and move a 4' by 4' by 4' small flight cage. Actually, the cage served as a basic (but not final) flight cage for very small species and as a rehabilitation cage for large species, such as quail, doves, and killdeer. Such a cage is ungainly to handle, so we designed a special gurney not only to reorient it indoors, but as well to wheel it outdoors.</p>
<p>The key features of this gurney are the use of cross couplings or Xs, the use of short legs, the use of capped uprights to prevent the cage from sliding, and the provision for a handle for rolling the cage about. The crosses provide a rigid basic structure. The short legs provide a home for the casters, about which we shall say more soon. The capped uprights are sized to the cage, and the caps make the entire structure water- tight.</p>
<p>The handle section consists of upright PVC lengths, with two cross bars, one about half way up and the other forming the handle. The handle is offset from the cage wall by the use of a pair of 45-degree couplings. In this application, the handle assembly will show some flex, but not enough to harm anything unless you load the gurney with a refrigerator.</p>
<p><img src="gurney-5.jpg" align="left" vspace="4" hspace="8" width="449" height="305"></p>
<p>The photograph shows the gurney in use with its cage, filled with perching limbs and other enrichments to prepare the recovering or growing bird(s) for eventual freedom. (With a rehabber in the household, pruning limbs was less a matter of cleaning up trees than it was a gathering of perches for bird who ranged in size from 4" to 15" long.)</p>
<p>Although this style of gurney may seem less apt to other uses, consider it as a potential base for a complete station on wheels. You may design the framework for holding the equipment and then redesign the gurney to hold the framework. Now you have a completely mobile station--or test lab, or whatever. (No, these gurneys are not designed for installing a small engine to make them self-propelled.)</p>
<p>I have mentioned casters for the gurneys in several places. There are two things to note about them: quality and mounting.</p>
<p>First, use only high quality casters. I learned from experience that the cheapest caster wheels will last only a very short time on concrete and asphalt. They may seem strong and economical in the hardware store, but they will amount to money lost when placed in use. Obtain high quality casters with wheels designed to stand the stresses, grinding, and wear of rough surfaces. You will discover that these units also have better bearings and hence roll more smoothly from day 1.</p>
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<p>The sketch introduces the subject of mounting casters. The end caps for PVC are too small for using the type of caster that mounts on a plate with small bolts. Since you may not be able to obtain flat-top caps, but have to settle for rounded types, you likely cannot even mount a plate onto the cap at all.</p>
<p>My solution was to use insertion casters that come with a housing that press fits into a hole. However, the hole must be in solid material for the length of the caster housing and the caster shaft.</p>
<p>My procedure was to cement together the end cap and the length of pipe necessary to join the cap to the leg assembly--ordinarily a T that abutted the end cap. I used auto-repair epoxy (Bondo) to fill the cap and linking pipe. I discovered through experience that the hole that I eventually drilled would hold the caster housing or shell better if I placed fiberglass repair cloth or simple wood chunks into the hole as I filled it with epoxy. Be certain to use the correct proportions of the two parts of the epoxy and to mix them thoroughly to ensure that the filling cures. Give the filled assembly a couple of days to cure before drilling, since the epoxy is in a confined space.</p>
<p>When fully cured, drill the leg end from the cap side to fit the caster shell tightly--but not so tightly as to prevent the caster from snapping in place. Do not drill all of the way through the epoxy fill. Tap home the shell and then insert the caster. If a caster housing later wants to begin to come loose, you can dribble some epoxy into the hole, let it cure, and then re-drill the shell hole.</p>
<p>If something breaks--and it never did for us--you can always effect a repair with some PVC couplings and short pipe lengths.</p>
<p>The cost of these gurneys was about $40-$50 each, with nearly half that cost going to casters and perhaps a fourth to left-over couplings and pipe. That is why I have some yard benches made from PVC frames and treated lumber, not to mention a 10-meter beam boom. Yes, you can find small gurneys and roll-around carts for a bit less, but not ones of the size and durability of these units.</p>
<p>Besides, the challenge of making something that custom fit the need was worth the investment. I have elsewhere stated that PVC is tinker-toys for adults, and so it is. A pipe structure from PVC, along with all of the fittings, is adaptable to many needs. Perhaps these gurneys will inspire you to even better structures for your own home, garden, shop, radio, antenna, and other needs. You can, for example, take the upright retainers from the second style of gurney and apply them to the upper and lower levels of the first gurney type. In that way, you might do away with fasteners altogether for holding in place the basic shelving trays. Hmmm. . . Now that is an interesting idea. I wonder how many couplings and how much pipe I have around the shop to try that.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 12-09-2002. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1>A Guide to Assisting Songbird Babies</h1>
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<h3>Jean R. Cebik</h3>
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<h4>Is the baby really an orphan?</h4>Each spring many people call wildlife rehabilitators because they have found a baby bird alone on the ground. People usually think that the animal needs their help, and they want to bring it in. Most babies are still under the watchful eye of their parents and do not need help from well-meaning humans.
<h4>Fledgling Baby Birds</h4>People often see baby birds that are partially or fully feathered sitting on the ground below a tree or shrub and automatically assume that the baby fell out of the nest and needs to be helped. At this stage in a bird's development, they are considered fledglings. Fledglings NORMALLY jump or fall out of the nest and spend several days on the ground or on tree limbs waiting for their parents to bring them food. This is their "flight training" stage. The parent birds will continue to feed their babies until the babies build their flight skills. This stage usually takes only a few days. Unless injured, these birds should be left where they are. Humans can help by keeping cats, dogs, and curious children away from the bird so that the mother can continue to feed it and teach it the necessary survival skills.
<p>If a dog or cat is threatening the baby bird, do not instantly bring the baby bird in. Rather, keep the pet restrained for the short time the baby is there. However, if a cat or dog has already attacked the bird (either a juvenile or an adult bird), please take the bird immediately to a wildlife rehabilitation intake center. They will accept injured wildlife, evaluate its condition, treat it, and then turn it over to a wildlife rehabber for the nursing care the animal needs until it is ready to be released back into the wild.</p>
<h4>Nestling Baby Birds</h4>Baby birds that are mostly featherless are considered to be nestlings. These birds stay in the nest and the parents come to feed them there. These babies, when found, are usually on the ground directly below the nest. This often occurs when a wind storm blows the baby out of the nest, a sibling pushed the nestling out, or the baby simply falls from the nest. Occasionally, a crow, blue jay, or grackle will take a nestling from the nest and, for whatever reason, drop it on the ground. If you find a nestling on the ground, the absolute best thing to do is to place the bird back in its nest. If the nest cannot be reached or if you find an entire nest with nestlings in it on the ground, the following procedure often works well: Create a "makeshift" nest out of a clean berry basket or margarine tub with holes punched in the bottom for drainage. Line the berry basket or bowl with pine needles or paper towels. Then tack the makeshift nest back up in the tree as close to the original nest as possible. Finally, place the nestlings into the nest and leave. The parents will usually come back in a short time and will feed the babies just as if they were in their original nest. If a bird has built a nest in an awkward location (for example, on the grill of your car), carefully remove the nest with the babies in it and place it as close to its original location as possible. For example, place it on a carport shelf, hidden from open view, or place it in a nearby tree or shrub. The mother bird will likely hear her babies chirping for food and will find the nest quickly and continue feeding them.
<p>It is a myth that birds will abandon their nests if a human has touched the nest or babies. Birds in general (with the exception of vultures) have a very poor sense of smell and will not be aware that you have touched their nest or babies. However, they will be bothered by the sight of humans near their nest. If you have had to move a nest or replace nestlings, watch from a distance to ensure that the parents find it and continue feeding their nestlings.</p>
<p>The only time we recommend bringing the baby birds to a wildlife rehabilitator is if you KNOW that the parents are dead or if the babies are injured in any way. The natural parents do a much better job of raising their young than any human could ever do. The natural parents can also teach their youngsters how to find food and avoid predators. A featherless baby bird that is brought to a wildlife rehabilitator must be fed every 15-20 minutes from dawn to dusk. This obviously requires a tremendous commitment of time and energy, and there is a severe shortage of songbird rehabilitators in our area. So please make every effort to keep baby birds with their parents and protect them from family pets.</p>
<p><b><i>If you do find a REAL orphan or an injured bird, please do the following</i></b>:</p>
<p>1. Get it to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator (orphan) or to a wildlife rehabilitation intake center (if injured) AS SOON AS POSSIBLE. The longer the delay, the less chance it has of surviving.</p>
<p>2. Keep the baby bird WARM and in a quiet, dark place until you can bring it in (a small cardboard box lined with paper towels or toilet tissue works well).</p>
<p>3. DO NOT give the baby bird any liquids (they get all they need from their food and very often will inhale any liquid and aspirate). If you cannot get the baby bird to a qualified caretaker for several hours, moisten some dry cat or dog food in warm water. Let it soak for about 15 minutes until the food is soft, and then feed the baby bird just one nugget of food at a time. If it is featherless, it needs to be fed every 15 minutes. If it is fully feathered, it should be fed once per hour. Handle the bird as little as possible, and remember that birds are very fragile. Although not a complete diet, the moistened cat or dog food will keep the bird alive until it can get to a qualified caretaker.</p>
<p>The designated wildlife intake center for injured birds and other wildlife is currently the University of Tennessee Vet School on Neyland Drive. Ijams Nature Center maintains a hotline to provide information on how to contact rehabilitators.</p>
<h4>How does one become a wildlife rehabilitator?</h4>If you are interested in becoming a wildlife rehabilitator, you need to contact a licensed rehabber. You must train with a licensed rehabber for one year and then set up your facility. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency must come and inspect your facility after you apply for your license. If they approve your license, you must then apply to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Atlanta for a permit to rehabilitate migratory birds (if you are interested in rehabbing mammals only, you do not need a federal permit). The Migratory Bird Treaty Act protects our native birds, and only licensed wildlife rehabilitators are permitted to hold a bird captive even for the purpose of nursing it back to health.
<p>Locally, the East Tennessee Council of Wildlife Rehabilitators meets once a month from September through April to further our education and training. They sponsor many programs and courses to keep us up-to-date in our knowledge of how to care for injured or orphaned wild animals. Two organizations, the International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council (IWRC) and the National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (NWRA), publish journals that contribute to our continuing education in this fascinating field. IWRC also offers courses of study and examinations in basic and advanced wildlife care. Becoming a licensed wildlife rehabilitator requires a large commitment of time, energy, and resources. No funding is provided by the state or federal government for this activity, and rehabbers are volunteers committed to helping our wild neighbors since human activity often causes harm to animals. This is one way of helping the wild creatures who share our planet. There are many other ways to help.</p>
<h4>What Can I Do To Help?</h4>As concerned human beings, there are some things that we can do to help the songbirds that add so much beauty and such sweet music to our lives. A few helpful actions are listed below.
<p>1. Plant trees, shrubs, and vines known to attract birds because they provide food sources or cover for nesting. Some of the plants native to the Southeast region of the U.S. that birds find most attractive are these:</p>
<pre> A. Trees B. Shrubs C. Vines and Flowers
Dogwood Pyracantha Trumpet Vine
Maple Barberry Morning Glory
Holly Holly Honeysuckle
Mulberry Ligustrum (Privet) Coneflower
Magnolia Viburnum Zinnia
Oak Nandina Sunflower
Cedar Serviceberry* Virginia creeper
Hemlock Rose Black-eyed Susan
Pine Cotoneaster Coreopsis
Sassafras Photinia
Crabapple Euonymus
Hackberry Flowering quince
Cherry
Plum
Mountain Ash </pre>
<p>*The serviceberry is considered a tree in the Southeast, but a shrub in other parts of the U.S. In Tennessee, it reaches the size of a mature dogwood or redbud tree.</p>
<p>These are just a few of the plants that birds use. As you can see, many of these plants add beauty to our yards while providing food and cover for the birds. If you are interested in learning more about plants that attract birds, consult any of the many books available at gardening centers or home centers (such as Lowe's, Mayo's, Home Depot).</p>
<p align="center"><img src="pelican.jpg" align="right" vspace="4" hspace="8" width="400" height="413"></p>
<p>2. Avoid the use of chemicals on your lawns. Pesticides and herbicides are poisonous to birds and other wildlife (and not very good for humans, either).</p>
<p>3. Easiest of all, leave a place for wildlife in your yard. Choose a corner of your property and let it revert to nature. Some of the plants that humans dislike provide important sources of food for wildlife. For example, wild blackberry plants, sumac, black cherry, pokeweed, hay grasses, and honeysuckle may be weeds to homeowners, but they are food for birds and small mammals such as chipmunks and squirrels.</p>
<p>4. Watch carefully the things that you throw away to ensure that they do not pose a danger to birds or other wildlife. Do not discard fishing line where birds or turtles can get entangled in it; many animals lose limbs when they become entangled in fishing line and their circulation is impeded. Do not discard plastic rings from soft drink cans without cutting them apart so that animals cannot get entangled in them. Do not pour out oil or other petroleum distillates; take them to a service station for proper disposal. Do not throw away out-of-date computers; they contain many toxic substances such as lead and mercury. Instead, find someone in need of a computer, even if it isn't the latest model, and donate it to a worthy cause or individual.</p>
<p>5. Provide a source of water in your yard. It can be as simple as a birdbath or as elaborate as a fountain. Keep your source of water filled with clean water.</p>
<p>6. Provide bird feeders. A wide variety of attractive and useful bird feeders are available at low cost. Remember to keep your feeders filled and clean them frequently.</p>
<p>7. Do not cut down a tree or shrub during spring or summer months without first checking thoroughly to be sure there are no birds nesting in it.</p>
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<p>Jean R. Cebik<br>
(deceased, 11-04-2002)</p>
<p>Formerly Federal and State Licensed and IWRC-Certified Songbird Rehabilitator</p>
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<h1>10-10 and Lindbergh</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>Imagine yourself on the 22nd of May, 1927, about 0200 Paris time. What would you be thinking? Much of the North American and European world was wondering whether Charles Augustus Lindbergh had successfully crossed the Atlantic solo in his Spirit of St. Louis. Somebody knew, and he was later to become a 10-10er.</p>
<p>That night, my father, Jim Cebik, KA1TXF, #53363, was operating under the call 1ATG from Fairfield CT (he now lives a few miles away in Stratford). For international contacts, he added the informally agreed upon prefix NU. He was in contact with 8AKL, that is, F8AKL (the "F" was also informal then) in the Paris area. The wavelength was 42 meters with minimum QRM and no QRN. The French operator sends QRX, please wait. He steps outside his shack to investigate a noise overhead. He returns to the air with the report that Lindbergh has passed overhead on his way to Le Bourget airport. Jim is quite possibly the first American on this side of the Atlantic to know that Lindbergh has made it.</p>
<p>F8AKL's name is illegible on the QSL card he sent. Detailed name and mailing address (not to mention county, 10-10 number, grid square, etc.) had not yet become standard parts of the card's format. Nevertheless, he confirmed passing on the information with this comment at the bottom of his card: "TNX for QSO OM--gld to kan give u news fm Lindbergh just wen is coming to Paris--PSE QSL." For both operators, the QSO was as exciting as the news of Lindbergh.</p>
<p>For those curious about the date and time, Lindbergh took off from the US (Roosevelt Field) at 7:52 AM EST, May 20, 1927. He flew for 33 hours and 32 minutes. In terms of Eastern time in the US, it was May 21, about half-past 5 in the early evening. In Paris, it was nearly 2 AM, the next day, give or take some looseness in log keeping in those days. (Another 1927 QSL card just lists the time as "night.")</p>
<p>Jim is 90 this year, still licensed, but not as active as he once was on the air. Off the air, his schedule makes me look feeble by comparison. And, yes, he clearly remembers this 1927 QSO--and many others, such as working Admiral Byrd's supply ship in the Arctic, a ship he finally set eyes on at Old Mystic Seaport in the 1950s during a family outing there.</p>
<p>I wonder what other historically interesting facts lie buried in the QSL cards of our members.</p>
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<p><i>This item first appeared in</i> 10-10 News<i>, July, 1996.</i></p>
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<h1>In Memory of Jean</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>Jean Robeson Cebik was my wife and so much more. A life-long resident of the Knox County, Tennessee, she passed away Monday, November 4, 2002, at the age of 59 after a 13-month struggle with cancer. Jean worked for many years at the University of Tennessee in office administration and at Technology for Energy as a technical editor before returning to UT and earning a master's degree in French literature. Afterwards, she taught a number of years at Pellissippi State College and then retired to become a licensed wild songbird rehabilitator. In addition, Jean was an accomplished craftsperson whose creations grace our home, with Christmas a special occasion for the display of her wreaths, flower arrangements, and ornaments.</p>
<p>Jean held an amateur radio license (N4TZP), and we often operated as an OM-YL team on 10 meters. She was my constant companion at every hamfest to which we traveled. The dedication that appears in each of my books available from <i>antenneX</i>--volumes of antenna studies--bears witness to Jean's importance in my life and to my work:</p>
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"All of the volumes of my antenna studies are dedicated to my wife, my friend, my supporter, and my colleague, all of whom are Jean. Her patience, understanding, and assistance gave me the confidence to retire early from academic life to undertake full-time the continued development of my web site. The site is devoted to providing, as best I can, information of use to radio amateurs and others--both beginning and experienced--on various antenna and related topics. Each volume grew out of that work--and hence, shows Jean's help at every step."
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<p>Jean was a state and federally licensed and IWRC certified wildlife rehabilitator specializing in songbirds. Songbird rehabilitation came Jean's way after her varied career during which was an avid bird watcher who did not so much wish to create a long life list as she wished keenly and sensitively to observe songbird behavior. She became a rehabilitator in the mid-1990s after retiring from her career path, and she carried her observations and sensitivity to the work. Specializing in smaller songbirds, she used her observations to create cage and aviary enrichments for both orphan and injured birds, in some years single-handedly caring for over 300 birds. Jean achieved a 70% success rate for release, and nothing satisfied her more than to discover nests of a few of her former charges in the 1-acre home that she developed into a habitat for songbirds and other small wildlife. She favored smaller songbirds, with eastern bluebirds, barn swallows, gold finches, chickadees, house wrens, and Carolina wrens among her special favorites. However, she also nurtured killdeer, quail, robins, doves, and blue jays with equal success. Each species of bird had special properties to be honored in their care and to inspire us as they flew to their renewed lives. Still, Jean cried for each of her charges who did not survive. (See <a href="howto.html">"A Guide to Assisting Songbird Babies,"</a> her notes distributed in the Knoxville, TN, area.)</p>
<p align="center"><img src="bluebird.jpg" align="right" vspace="4" hspace="8" width="383" height="304"></p>
<p>Jean was selflessly devotion to songbird and wildlife rehabilitation. She so loved songbirds that she devoted her life to nourishing, protecting, and rehabilitating them. They thanked her well by singing and flying to freedom. Jean used her background in research to ferret out information for fellow rehabilitators, including internet searches for the latest data and for sources of materials and supplies. To the Eilertsen-MacLeod manual, <i>A Flying Chance</i>, Jean contributed extensive observations and numerous photographs. She was also a member of the East Tennessee Wildlife Rehabilitation Council, which--in conjunction with Knoxville's Ijams Nature Center--planted on December 7 a <a href="amelanchier.html">serviceberry tree</a> as an enduring, useful, and living memorial to Jean.</p>
<p>Perhaps no other tree or shrub could honor Jean more than the serviceberry. A native North American genus (amelanchier), the serviceberry appears in almost as many species as it has common names: serviceberry, shad bush, shadblow, juneberry, sarvis. Most of the names come to us from colonial and early pioneer times, when the tree bloomed in early Spring, about the time circuit-riding preachers could once more hold services, and when the shad began their runs and incidentally provided food for colonials. In June, its berries emerged to fill the crops of birds and the pies of pioneers. Its foliage sheltered and nourished wildlife ranging from birds to bears.</p>
<p>The ETWRC-Ijams planting grew out of Jean's final wish, which I had added to notes on her passing to both amateur radio and wildlife rehabilitation organizations. Jean's last wish was simple: that everyone she knew should plant a tree or shrub in his or her yard to nourish, nurture, and protect the songbirds that she so much loved and so ably rehabilitated. Upon hearing of Jean's final wish, one individual pensively noted: "How thoughtful! How sensitive! How selfless! How typical!"</p>
<p>Jean's wish reached both wildlife rehabilitators and amateur radio operators throughout the U.S. and beyond. Response has been overwhelming, with Autumn plantings or promises of Spring plantings amounting to a large grove, if not a small forest. The East Tennesse DX Association has fulfilled a promised second planting at Ijams for early 2003, and the Oak ridge Amateur Radio Club has contributed a third tree. There are plantings as far way from Jean's Knoxville, TN, home as Australia, where the planter of a Golden Wattle noted that the sun should never set upon Jean's memory or her work. Although Jean's innate modesty might not have let her say so, nothing would have pleased her more than the response to her final wish, except perhaps that the plantings might become a precedent to similar gestures to honor each future fallen rehabilitator.</p>
<p>Together we lived and learned, each from and with the other. I am much less than I was, now that I am without her, but much more than I could have been had I not met her. Jean was my wife, my friend, my life, and my love. She is not here. I shall miss her.</p>
<p>December 8, 2002</p>
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<h1><img src="../images/wirecad.gif" align="middle" width="125" height="62" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9"> What's in a Name? <img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="middle" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10"></h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>The <i>antenna</i> owes its name to a certain visual similarity that some kinds bear to the "movable, segmented organ of sensation on the head of insects, myriapods, and crustaceans." We rarely confuse the two generic types of the antenna for plural reasons. An insect has two <i>antennae</i>, but an amateur radio operator often has two (or more) <i>antennas</i>. (Many British experts preserve the alternative name, <i>aerial</i>, perhaps because the term is less arcane and captures something of the antenna's lofty position in the air and something of its ethereal role in radio communications.) "What's in a name?" wrote Shakespeare. An antenna by any other name would radiate as well--and confuse the heck out of amateur radio operators.</p>
<p>Confusion reigns within the field of antenna names largely due to history--more specifically, the history attached to how each antenna type received its name. Some antennas have received the names of their creators or developers, such as the (W)8JK. Others have received names because of what they look like, such as the J-pole. Still others received names from their original uses, such as the Zepp(elin). Some few antennas hide technical information behind their names, such as the dipole. Since the history of antennas includes strong elements of mixing, matching, and adaptation, the result has become almost a free-for-all of naming that can leave us breathless, wondering what a name really means.</p>
<p>We can obtain some useful information--or at least a bit of entertainment--by looking at the names of antennas apart from most of our normal concerns for their performance under the circumstances of their installation. Ultimately, the option that we shall face is whether to call an antenna by its common name--often a misnomer--or by a technical description that best places the antenna within the total body of antenna types. Shall we refer to a certain antenna as an endfire bi-directional array of a pair of horizontal center-fed collinear 2-half wavelength wires 180&deg; out of phase or simply as a W8JK flattop? The answer seems obvious until we explore some of the ways in which common names can get us into trouble.</p>
<p>So let's explore some of the types of names that we give antennas. This space is too small for detailed histories of names, but along the way, we can suggest avenues of further exploration for those interested. As a convention, I shall <i>italicize</i> each antenna name that we consider. Mercifully, I shall omit from consideration most merely cute names, such as the myriad of antennas that have borne the name "signal squirter." ("Squirt," however, once had a common use in amateur radio to designate newcomers who usually used lower power than more experienced hams.)</p>
<p><b>Antennas Named for People</b></p>
<p>In earlier radio days--say the late 1920s through about 1940--antenna designs emerged largely from two sources: Bell Labs and RCA. Engineers would publish their developments--after their companies obtained patents--in the <i>Proceedings of the IRE</i> (later supplanted by the array of IEEE publications) or in a house organ, such as the <i>RCA Review</i>. Both are excellent sources of information on antenna developments, and most college libraries have collections. If you wish to look at the original papers, you may obtain specific references by looking at the footnotes or references in any of the standard college texts, such as Kraus' <i>Antennas</i>.</p>
<p>If an antenna design took hold, users would tag the antenna with the developer's name. Such was the case for Bruce and Sterba, whose antennas appear in outline form in <b>Fig. 1</b>. Both antennas are bi-directional arrays in which the beamwidth and gain emerged from the number of bays in the system. The feedpoints shown varied, with a more central feedpoint removing a slight azimuth tilt produced by end wire or corner feeding.</p>
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<p>Both antennas have interesting histories. Although both have passed from commercial use, the <i>Bruce array</i> has found renewed interest among amateurs, especially in the Northwest corner of the U.S, with its tall supportive Douglas firs. However, Kraus is reputed to have reported that Edmond Bruce himself confessed that he would have preferred his name be attached to another of the many types of antennas that he developed in his distinguished career.</p>
<p>Sterba's work has also passed from use, but not from legend. It also illustrates how easy it is to confuse categories of antenna names. We shall soon look at the naming of antennas in terms of what they resemble. The <i>Sterba curtain</i> is not one of those antennas--although it sort of looks like a curtain. Nonetheless, as the diagram shows, the antenna has some specific requirements, such as the 1/2 wavelength dimensions and the vertical parallel sections that form phasing (transmission) lines. However, I have seen on the web an "all-band Sterba curtain." Yes, the antenna will load up on all HF bands, even when cut for 10 meters. However, the phase relationships that make the antenna a Sterba curtain hold only for the narrow band of frequencies for which the basic properties hold. Just because an antenna looks like a Sterba curtain does not mean that it is a Sterba curtain. Off the design frequency, it may become simply a random tangle of wires with dubious radiation properties.</p>
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<p>Perhaps the most famous and still widely used antenna-naming event has been the Yagi, one version of which appears in <b>Fig. 2</b>. The original work on parasitic element relationships appeared in the late 1920s as a joint publication of Yagi and Uda. Hence, one historically correct name for the antenna is the <i>Yagi-Uda</i> parasitic array. It is unclear just why the name was shortened to simply the <i>Yagi</i>. A number of engineers are bothered by references to the antenna by its shortened name, since Uda may have been more central to the development of ideas that are still in use today. They appear to fear that the shortened name reflects our bad habit of the giving of credit to or the taking of credit by an academic or staff senior member, when the work is actually the product of a younger creative mind. However, the more probable reason for the truncation is that it is simply easier to say the first of the two names--and what is easiest to say often sticks as a label.</p>
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<p>I must confess to a small contribution to the name-by-development enterprise. In the 1990s, I began examining Les Moxon's development of the VK2ABQ square into a rectangle with more reliable performance characteristics. (The antenna has precedents in the 1930s, but it appears that both VK2ABQ and G6XN were unaware of them.) As I developed the outlines of the rectangular antenna that used both parallel-element and element-tip coupling to yield some useful properties, I called the antenna the <i>Moxon rectangle</i>. Les' contributions to understanding antennas among radio amateurs seemed to warrant the label for the antenna. See his <i>HF Antennas for All Locations</i>. The name for the rectangular antenna appears to have gained some currency.</p>
<p>Some antenna names appear to have been either self-generated or self-promoted by individual developers. Perhaps the classic case appears in <b>Fig. 4</b>. John Kraus, W8JK (or simply 8JK in some older circles), has never avoided any opportunity to promote his own work, which was highly creative over his long career. In his works, you will find innumerable self-references, even in texts that we might expect to take a more objective or remote perspective on matters.</p>
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<p>The <i>(W)8JK array</i> is a bi-directional horizontal endfire array consisting of 2 elements, each of which is anywhere from 1/2 wavelength to 1.25 wavelengths long. The elements are 180 degrees out of phase with each other, as suggested by the center main feed line and the fact that one of two connecting lines to the elements has a half twist. The antenna appears in many variations of element spacing and length, and some versions have used multiple-wire elements. The antenna still has numerous applications.</p>
<p>At the opposite end of the scale are antennas with only partial names, so that the name of the developer has been lost, except among those with enough interest to dig out the information. The <i>ZL Special</i>, shown in 3 variations from the 1950s in <b>Fig. 5</b>, is a case in point. Many folks view this antenna simply as a development from down under rather than as the work of an individual. The antenna emerged in 1949 from the work of George Prichard, who was ZL3MH at the time and later became ZL2QQ. F. C. Judd, G2BCX dubbed the antenna the ZL Special in 1950 in his article describing his initial experimental results. Specific identifying marks to indicate Pritchard as the originator simply disappeared after that. (There are some similar developments during World War II, but they were not accessible to--or usable by--radio amateurs at the time.)</p>
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<p>The ZL Special is a basic version of a 2-element horizontal phased array with principles of operation similar to those used by its Swiss counterpart, the HB9CV. Unfortunately, the sad state of affairs in the development of amateur Yagi beams of the period gave the simpler 2-element antenna an unwarranted reputation for very high gain (over 9 dBi in modern terms) to go with an excellent front-to-back ratio. (It deserved the latter judgment.) Variations on the design still appear today.</p>
<p>Naming antennas for their developers is a long, honored, and honorable tradition in radio communications work. However, we should remember that such names tell us virtually nothing about the antenna itself--unless we happen to be familiar with the antenna by having studied it--however briefly. Hence, as we saw with the Sterba curtain, the combination of a named antenna and too little information about what the antenna really is (and how it does its work) carries the danger of perpetuating either wrong labels or--worse yet--faulty impressions and information.</p>
<p>Still, we find a persistent ego-borne effort by some writers to name antennas after themselves. In amateur circles, the naming usually involves a call sign. There are occasions on which the practice is appropriate. For example, if one is comparing an already named antenna design to some variation or refinement of one's own devising, then distinguishing the comparators may require something like a pair of calls, one of which will be the author's. Apart from such circumstances, I prefer to let history take its toll. Understanding what an antenna is and how it works is more significant than giving the antenna a catchy name.</p>
<p><b>Antennas Named for What they Look Like</b></p>
<p>Antennas often received names based on their appearance. What they look like determines the label, which comes in one of two general forms: alphabetic and geometric. <b>Fig. 5</b> shows typical examples of each kind of name. The <i>J-pole</i> not only resembles the letter J, but originally made use of pipe sections to result in a self-supporting VHF vertical antenna.</p>
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<p>Clarence Moore, W9LZX, holds the patent for the <i>cubical quad</i> antenna. The closed loop structure originally overcame coronal discharge problems at HCJB in Quito, Ecuador in 1942. The name obviously derives from the appearance--virtually a cube using 4-sided elements. An X-brace supports the 4 corners and allows the loops to have a square (shown) appearance or to take on a diamond shape. Because the basic name applies to a 2-element version of the antenna, individual elements often bear the name <i>quad loop</i>, while arrays with 2 or more elements become <i>quad beams</i>.</p>
<p>Alphabetic names are perhaps the most numerous, since many basic antennas resemble common letters. To the alphabet, we may add another piece of U.S. history that plays a role in antenna naming: cattle branding. Brands had to be simple to meet the capabilities of frontier blacksmith shops, but maintain a unique identity for each rancher. From those origins have emerged a few antenna names, such as the pair in <b>Fig. 7</b>.</p>
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<p>The <i>lazy-H</i> is a relatively old bi-directional beam consisting of 2 collinear elements spaced originally 1/2 wavelength in a vertical arrangement. The cross bar of the H is the phase line, which feeds the two elements in phase. Other feeding schemes are possible for monoband versions of the antenna using 1 wavelength element lengths and an electrical half wavelength phase line (taking the velocity factor into account). However, the 1960s brought the realization that if the elements are 1.25 wavelengths long and spaced 5/8 wavelength apart, the beamwidth will be narrower and the gain higher. As well, the antenna will operate reasonably down to the point where the elements are only 1/2 wavelength long, with a spacing of 1/4 wavelength. With a wide-range antenna tuner, the lazy-H became a multi-band bi-directional broadside array.</p>
<p>Much younger than the lazy-H is the <i>lazy-N</i>. The tilted N structure is all part of the radiating element (unlike the lazy-H that combines elements and phase lines to make its letter shape). The antenna zigzags the element with angular fold-backs to reduce the total height of the vertical. To overcome the lowered feedpoint impedance of this arrangements, the antenna uses an offset feedpoint experimentally determined to be close to 50 Ohms.</p>
<p>Both the lazy-H and the lazy-N tell a sad tale from the historical perspective. With such easy names, few--if any--people remember who the developers may have been or where to find the original articles describing the first incarnations.</p>
<p>Alphabetic antenna names very quickly become alphabet soup. <b>Fig. 8</b> shows us why. Consider a resonant half wavelength antenna fed at the center. Rather than creating a linear element, we shall bend the antenna at the center to form a 90-degree angle. What do we get? <b>Fig. 9</b> shows us some of the territory.</p>
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<p>At the bottom left are 4 views of antenna with our eyes parallel to the ground plane. Hence, the antenna extends vertically. We may make an <i>L</i> or an <i>inverted-L</i>. (We often bring the latter antenna to the ground and feed it at that point, sometimes using a radial system.) The next two views shows us a <i>V</i> (rarely used except for TV rabbit ears) and the very common HF <i>inverted-V</i>. The last entry allows us to suspend an HF wire with only one high support. Although the Ls require a 90-degree angle, Vs and inverted-Vs often use wider angles. If we change our viewing point to a position above the antenna and arrange it parallel to the ground, we obtain a horizontal V, also called a <i>quadrant</i> antenna. The last name seems to apply only to single element horizontal wires.</p>
<p>The upper part of the sketch shows a bit of the terminological morass created by the letter V (a part of the letter's story intentionally omitted by Sesame Street). On the upper left is a long-wire <i>V-beam</i>. The end wires return to ground or to just above ground with a terminating resistor to create a directional traveling wave antenna. Each leg may be from 2 to <i>n</i> wavelengths long, depending upon the available wire and terrain. At the center is a second V beam, this time composed of elements that are swept forward to form the V shapes. V-ing elements tends to degrade rather than enhance the performance of 1/2 wavelength elements, but may provide some pattern control of 1.25 wavelength elements. (In some designs, the 1.25 wavelength dimension is between the element end points and results in a need for physical elements totaling close to 1.5 wavelength.) Just to add to the potential confusion in the V name, the right-hand V-beam consists of inverted-V elements. In most cases, the seeming simplicity of a letter name leads to its use for antennas that may have very distinct arrangements and properties.</p>
<p>Geometric shapes are not without their own oddities of use or of history. <b>Fig. 9</b> shows 3 vertically polarized self-contained verticals. On the left in each case is the electrically simpler version. The <i>delta</i> is any triangle, although equilateral and right triangles are the most common shapes. The side feed point is 1/4 wavelength from the apex to provide a vertically polarized pattern. Below it is the side-fed <i>rectangle</i>, again vertically polarized given the feedpoint.</p>
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<p>To the right of each single antenna is a doubled version. Since each of the left-side shapes forms a pair of vertical monopoles fed in phase (roughly), the doubled versions act like a bank of 3 vertical monopoles fed (roughly) in phase. The bi-directional pattern is broadside to the plane of the wires.</p>
<p>At the top of the figure we find the <i>half square</i>, so named because it seems to lack the bottom half that would make a full square. To the right is the doubled version, called in a mixed metaphor the <i>bobtail curtain</i> by its developer. Each antenna uses true vertical elements properly spaced for maximum gain. However, to achieve this goal, the half-square is somewhat out of square, with a 5:8 ratio between vertical and horizontal sections. The bobtail curtain requires significant elongation of the horizontal sections and shortening of the legs for maximum broadside gain. Whereas the simple delta and rectangular shapes predate their doubled versions, the bobtail curtain historically precedes the half square. See Woodrow Smith, W6BCX, "Bet My Money on the Bobtail Beam," <i>CQ</i> (March, 1948), 21-23 and 92-95, and Ben Vester, K3BC, "The Half Square Antenna," <i>QST</i> (March, 1974), 11-14, for the seminal articles on each antenna. In place of the upper high-current, low voltage feedpoints shown, one may bring the tip of one vertical to ground and use standard voltage-feeding methods.</p>
<p>The odd name of the doubled half-square results from combining two different look-alike ideas. The idea of a curtain goes back to the 1920s and rests on the resemblance of the array of elements (and support lines) to a curtain. The verticals do not reach the ground, giving rise to the idea of bobbing the tail of a horse. The composite picture of a horse's tail covering a living room window, however, is not a pretty sight. When we stray from using strictly alphabetic or geometric names, we often open the door to confusion. <b>Fig. 10</b> shows a different kind of example.</p>
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<p>The sketches show 3 different kinds of <i>bow-ties</i>. In the left, feeding across the center points of the top and bottom wires yields a vertically polarized signal. We find such bow-ties ahead of many planar reflectors in UHF FM repeater service. If we feed across the center horizontally, the wings of the bow-tie act like very fat horizontal element halves. This configuration also bears that name <i>fan</i>, but it should not be confused with fans of dipoles for two or more frequencies, fed at a common point. On the right is an alternative shape for the horizontal bow-tie. Both the center and the right versions may have a straight horizontal section running across the overall shape and supporting lighter spread wires in the HF region. UHF bow-ties sometimes consist of solid surfaces.</p>
<p>The bow-tie at the right is a bow-tie only if we feed it horizontally, as shown. If we separate the upper and lower wire structures and feed across the two at the center--following the system used at the far left, then the bow-tie becomes a vertically polarized <i>double diamond</i>. However, diamonds have their own foundations for confusion.</p>
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<p><b>Fig. 11</b> shows the outline of a terminated long wire array. In 1931, Bruce called this a <i>diamond</i>. However, others preferred a more purely geometric name and called it the <i>rhombic</i>. Bruce adopted this label in his 1935 article, co-authored by Beck and Lowry. The dimensions of the antenna combined the leg length and the angle called alpha in various equations to result in a highly directional array with a very narrow beamwidth. Matching the terminating resistor of this traveling wave antenna to the feedpoint impedance yields a wide-band array with consider performance--but also with very strong sidelobes. Although few remain in use, the antenna served point-to-point communications across the oceans for several decades. Incidentally, this is the array that Bruce apparently would have liked his name attached to instead of the array shown in <b>Fig. 1</b>.</p>
<p>Although many other geometric labels exist, these suffice to show the simplicity--and therefore the danger--of using names that rest simply on what an antenna may resemble. Merely calling out the alphabetic or geometric name of an antenna does not yet tell us anything significant about the antenna itself in most cases.</p>
<p>I have vowed to omit from these notes labels that are merely cute. However, there is a trend in antenna labels that has an alphabetical flair. It occurs when we mix antenna types and try to come up with a unique name for the hybrid result. Perhaps no basic antenna has seen more variations than the Yagi (or Yagi-Uda, if you prefer). <b>Fig. 12</b> shows some of the labeled hybrids.</p>
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<p>The <i>quagi</i> combines some quad loop elements--usually the driver and the reflector--in an effort to improve performance by at least the level of a quad loop over a dipole. Results have been mixed, although the idea continues to attract experimenters in VHF and UHF antenna work. The <i>zagi</i> is a yagi with zigzag elements that use linear compression to shorten the width of at least small beams. The zigzagging may use triangular or square sections. Since a Yagi does not care much about its driver, we may use a J-pole to drive a vertical beam. The result is the <i>jagi</i>. Finally (at least for the moment), we may drive a Yagi with two drivers, phase-fed, in order either to increase gain over a narrow bandwidth or to increase the natural bandwidth of a driver-director array. The result becomes the <i>phagi</i> (also called the <i>log-cell Yagi</i>). The quest for short memorable names is almost as unstoppable as the effort to name an antenna after oneself.</p>
<p><b>Antennas Named for Their Initial Use</b></p>
<p>Of all the antennas named for their original applications, we need only one example to show what can happen to a name, once we give it some currency. Consider the Zeppelin, a hard-frame lighter-then-air ship of the 1920s and 30s. For radio communications, the simplest HF antenna that we might use would be a long wire trailing from the ship. Of course, we would have to feed it at one end of the wire. We might use an antenna tuner today to match the high-impedance of the wire's end, but in earlier days of high-impedance vacuum-tube amplifiers, we might also find a way to connect the antenna directly to the transmitter. The top sketch in <b>Fig. 13</b> shows the antenna itself.</p>
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<p>The feasibility of this antenna gave rise to ground-based applications. Two modifications emerged. First, to keep the antenna as high as possible, we employed a high impedance transmission line between the equipment and the antenna end. Second, we shortened the antenna name to the <i>Zepp</i>. With a wide-range antenna tuner, we found that we could operate the antenna over a considerable span of frequencies if the wire was at least 1/2 wavelength long at the lowest frequency. At high frequencies, the antenna wire became longer as measured in wavelengths.</p>
<p>Eventually, the center sketch in <b>Fig. 13</b> acquired a longer name: the end-fed Zepp. Given its origins, we should not have needed the label expansion. What occasioned the enlargement was a curious turn of linguistic events. If we take the same length of wire, we can also feed it in the center. This arrangement is convenient for many home installations where the house and the operating room may be centered on the available property. Unfortunately, many folks began calling the mid-point feeding arrangement the center-fed Zepp. The original use that gave rise to the name for the antenna had disappeared, lost in the human penchant for short snappy names. However, if you are prone to mental pictures, consider a Zeppelin trying to use a center-fed arrangement with very long wires on either side of the feedpoint. Pictures aside, one center-fed antenna has permanently acquired a Zepp association. If the element is about 1.25 wavelengths, then we have an extended double Zepp (or EDZ--in some literature, a DEZ), even though the vertical monopole version (at 0.625 wavelength) is not called an extended Zepp or any kind of Zepp at all.</p>
<p>Like all of the antenna names or labels that we have so far considered, a name based upon an initial application tells us almost nothing about what the antenna is technically. Such names obscure rather than reveal where an antenna fits within the overall set of structures that we use to radiate and receive signals. Indeed, it sometimes amazes me how few antenna names actually do reveal what the antennas do and how they do it. Even those antennas that do bear technical names are subject to dangers of label misuse.</p>
<p><b>Antennas Whose Names Carry Technical Information</b></p>
<p>If we look closely at a few of the basic antenna names, we can find some technical information. To find the information, we must treat the label as a noun with a meaning and not just as a convenient name. Radio amateurs tend to have difficulty in this regard because they enter antenna studies in the middle. Basic licensing requirements tend to insist that the individual undergoing a test recognize some antenna shapes, not that they understand basic antenna principles.</p>
<p>Consider the <i>dipole</i>. At the most rudimentary level, this antenna serves both theoretical and practical purposes. The most rudimentary dipole is very short and has the general properties shown in <b>Fig. 14</b>. The level of charge increases constantly from the centered feedpoint outward, reaching a peak value at the element ends. In contrast, the current distribution is maximum at the feedpoint and decreases toward zero at the wire ends.</p>
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<p>If a dipole is to be a dipole, then it must preserve its basic properties as we lengthen it to a value that is practical. Current must be highest at the center and decrease once along the wire length toward the wire ends. Essentially, the maximum length of a true dipole is an electrical half wavelength. This antenna is perhaps the most common and fundamental antenna used by radio amateurs if we combine a number of properties to form a label for the antenna that is truly accurate. What we normally call a dipole is actually a center-fed resonant (or nearly resonant) 1/2 wavelength dipole. The term "dipole" indicates the current (and the charge) distribution. The term "center-fed" indicates where along the wire that we place the energy source, that is, the feedpoint. (Other feedpoints for the length of wire involved will produce the same current distribution as the center feedpoint.) The reference to being "resonant" indicates that at the feedpoint, the measured impedance shows no reactance, but is instead purely resistive. (The note on being nearly resonant recognizes that a small amount of reactance at the feedpoint is acceptable under normal conditions of use.) The wire length (1/2 wavelength) may seem redundant, but it does give us information needed to replicate the conditions on other frequencies. The combination of ingredients that make up the commonly used dipole are very convenient. It allows us to use a coaxial cable as a feedline for monoband operation, and the impedance of a well-matched system coincides closely with the output or input impedance of standard transmitting and receiving equipment used for many decades.</p>
<p>What happens if we make the center-fed wire longer? We do not need to do any physical work, but only to increase the operating frequency. Then the wire can be several wavelength long, even though it is 1/2 wavelength at the initial or lowest frequency. Typical of the results is the current distribution curve shown in the lower part of <b>Fig. 15</b>.</p>
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<p>With many transitions of current from maximum to minimum and back again, we no longer have a dipole. Instead, we have a 4 wavelength center-fed antenna whose feedpoint may or may not be nearly resonant. Indeed, the only trait that the antenna has at the listed frequency with the original dipole is the fact that both antennas have a centered feedpoint. For a half century, we have called such antennas <i>doublets</i>. The name only tells us where to find the feedpoint. The rest we shall have to add to arrive at a reasonable technical description of the antenna.</p>
<p>There is an unfortunate tendency among radio amateurs especially to label an antenna by what it looks like and not by what the antenna is doing. Even seasoned antenna veterans persist in calling any center-fed wire a dipole, except for some few who call it a center-fed Zepp. However, the antenna shown in the lower part of <b>Fig. 15</b> is a doublet and requires further specification to capture its functioning. Now let's make the story just a bit more complex. In the 1930s, we likely could not have used the term "doublet" as a label for the antenna. In that decade, some handbooks used the term for a very specific antenna. If we use parallel feedline as the line to a 1/2 wavelength center-fed wire, we do not obtain a close impedance match between the antenna and the feedline. To effect a match, builders would spread the feeder ends and connect them to the wire at a distance from the wire center and eliminate the gap that we might ordinarily find at the center point. Within a decade or so, handbooks gave this arrangement a more specific name: the delta match, because the spread of the feedline formed an inverted Greek letter in shape. The term "doublet" had been freed to indicate a center-fed wire of indeterminate length, but certainly one that is longer than a strict dipole.</p>
<p>The 4 wavelength center-fed wire at 28.4 MHz that we viewed in <b>Fig. 15</b> is not only longer than a strict dipole, it qualifies as a <i>long-wire</i> antenna. You may ask fairly the following question: How long must a wire antenna be to qualify as a long-wire antenna? The answer is not illuminating: we are not sure. Most antennas that we classify as long-wire antennas do not begin to show desirable properties until they are at least 2 wavelengths long--sometimes 3 or more. Practical long-wire antennas used in the 1930s through today tend to be at least 5 wavelengths long. However, I know of no text that sets a dividing point between the long-wire antenna and the antenna that is not a long-wire. (However, note that we do not divide the world of antennas into 2 classes: the dipole and the long-wire. The two terms do not form a true contrasting pair.)</p>
<p>Most long-wire antennas also use end feedpoints. With the feedpoint at one end, we can add a terminating resistor at the other end of the wire array to convert a standing-wave antenna with bi-directional properties into a traveling-wave antenna that is highly directional. <b>Fig. 16</b> shows three commonly used long-wire arrays: the simple 1-wire <i>long-wire</i>, the <i>V beam</i>, and the <i>rhombic</i>. All three use terminating impedances to arrive at the sample azimuth patterns that I have overlaid on the antenna sketches. Both the V beam and the rhombic make use of the angles of the single wire's main lobes to arrive at the correct wire angle to achieve the high gain and narrow beamwidth of their main lobes.</p>
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<p>"Long-wire" then is both a generic label for any antenna that is numerous wavelengths long and a more specific label for one kind--the simplest kind--of generic long-wire antenna. So the 4 wavelength center-fed unterminated doublet of <b>Fig. 15</b> is a generic long-wire antenna, but not specifically a long-wire antenna of the end-fed sort.</p>
<p>Some technically informative labels become so long that we create abbreviations. Then we proceed to use the abbreviations in antenna writings, often assuming that the reader can translate the label. Hence, we find articles and specification sheets on LPDAs, sometimes further abbreviated to LPDs. LPDA stands for log periodic dipole array, and some writers believe that the word "array" (and its abbreviating letter) are superfluous. (We also have LPMAs or LPMs, meaning log periodic monopole arrays.) The LPDA label indicates not just a set of antenna properties, but as well an entire design procedures for creating antenna of the required type. <b>Fig. 17</b> shows some of the basic design elements as well as the general outline of an LPDA.</p>
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<p>The elements of the LPDA are substitutes for short sections of arc in a circle. By using initial values that define the angle formed by the element outlines, the relative length of any two adjacent elements and the spacing between adjacent elements, and the initial spacing of the rearmost two elements, we can design a complete LPDA. The design will include a transmission line between elements that undergoes a single half-twist at each new element working from the forward feedpoint to the rear. The line partly determines the antenna's properties and also the feedpoint impedance, which will be close to resonant in adequate designs. In fact, the antenna falls into a class of antenna called frequency-independent antennas. However, practical LPDAs set upper and lower frequency limits in normal applications. Entire books exist on the design and properties of LPDAs--and their cousins, the LPMAs. However, this brief overview may suffice to indicate just how much technical detail a very specific antenna label may indicate.</p>
<p>Now let's become complex again. Many practical designs for LPDAs may add a parasitic director at the forward of the array to raise the gain at the high end of the operating passband without the need for numerous short elements. Sometimes, practical designs will also use a parasitic reflector to aid low-end performance. Now we have a quandary. Is the resulting antenna a supplemented LPDA or something else.</p>
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<p>The "something else" might be a <i>log-cell Yagi</i>, as illustrated in <b>Fig. 18</b>. In this antenna, we find a driver section that answers to LPDA rules, plus a pair of parasitic elements. The driver section usually does not enhance gain, but it can yield an improved front-to-back ratio over a Yagi with a single driver element. Most significantly, the log-cell can broaden the operating bandwidth of the antenna allowing relatively even performance over all of the widest amateur bands, such as 10, 6, and 0.7 meters.</p>
<p>In fact, we often distinguish between a supplemented LPDA and a log-cell Yagi by reference to the frequency coverage. If the parasitic elements aid performance at very disparate frequencies but are inert for other parts of a wide operating spectrum, then we generally have a supplemented LPDA. If the parasitic elements are effective across the entire passband (usually restricted to a single band, such as 10 or 20 meters), then we have a log-cell Yagi. However, like all separations between labels, the distinction is not absolute. For example, there are pure LPDAs designed for single bands, such as 10 or 6 meters.</p>
<p>Let's add one final complexity. <b>Fig. 12</b> showed one sample of a phagi, a Yagi using a pair of phased driver elements. Now we can pose a further fair question: When do we have a phagi and when do we have a log-cell Yagi? The most general answer will die a death of a thousand qualifications. Usually, a true log-cell Yagi will design the driver section using LPDA design procedures. In contrast, most simple phased driver sections tend to find their dimensions experimentally, that is, by trial and error. As well, the phagi driver section might use a common feedpoint with transmission line section going both forward and rearward (with the half-twist only on the rearward section). A true log-cell always places the feedpoint at the forward element in the cell.</p>
<p>So much for generalities. In practice, the phased driver section of a phagi may result in values that would meet LPDA rules. The log-cell that originates using LPDA design procedures may require modification to meet the needs of the overall log-cell Yagi. In the end, we do not find a sharp dividing line between the two antennas and their labels. Instead, we find only a fuzzy gray area of indeterminacy. Such is the life of labels and names.</p>
<p><b>Conclusion--of Sorts</b></p>
<p>We certainly might extended our list indefinitely. Among abbreviated antenna names is the DDRR. Antennas named for developers include the Windom, the Beverage, and the Adcock. Geometrically based names include the bi-square and the four square. Common antennas taking their names from various everyday shapes encompass the fishbone and the bazooka, not to mention whips, folded elements in various forms and antenna elements with hats. As the list of labels grows longer, the more we realize just how uninformative most of them are.</p>
<p>If these notes have a conclusion, it might be in the form of a rule. Antenna labels, when properly used, mask a wealth of information about what the antenna does and how it does it. Labels are not for simple visual recognition, since visual appearance can deceive as often as it enlightens. When you encounter a new (or old) antenna label or name, take time and devote energy to learning everything that you can about the antenna. Only then will the antenna's name become truly meaningful.</p>
<p>What's in a name? Everything--or nothing at all, depending upon the effort you put into learning about the thing named.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 12-26-2005. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1>Antenna Newcomers and the Language of Antennas</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>The antenna forums and discussion lists often have occasion to answer inquiries from individuals who are relative newcomers to the study of antennas. As well, many other newcomers "lurk" in the background, reading the stream of questions, notes, and replies, but rarely sending a message.</p>
<p>Antenna newcomers deserve a hearty welcome, but also some understanding. Most are not EE students using the various information sources as an adjunct to "Antennas 101." Rather, they are individuals who already have embarked on life's journey through work in other areas. They may have become interested in RF communications and now find that antennas are interesting if only because they seem the most mysterious part of the path between the key, computer, or mike on one side and the speaker, headphones, or computer on the other side. The curbs at the edge of the road that signals must cross are the antennas. Still others may already be involved in electronics, but have now been re-assigned to work with antennas--and they cannot remember a word of what happened in "Antennas 101." I have had the good fortune to meet these and many other types of individuals who are relatively new to antennas.</p>
<p>One of the oldest and worst postures that experienced antenna workers (teachers, engineers, 50-year hams, etc.) can take is the attitude of superiority that says, "I have made it this far. It is up to you to catch up." Rather, we should all be amazed at what the newcomer has to learn just to get started. Let's make a short list of what it takes just to get going in this fascinating arena. We can divide the areas of "getting-started information" into 3 general categories. Our list is strictly practical.</p>
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<li>1. Basic conventions and concepts related to antenna representation;</li>
<li>2. Some basic concepts applicable to antenna operation; and</li>
<li>3. Some basic concepts of antenna performance in numerical and graphical form.</li>
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<p><b>Basic conventions and concepts related to antenna representation</b></p>
<p>More experienced antenna workers typically sketch antennas incompletely and casually. For example, the 3 forms of dipole sketching on the left in <b>Fig. 1</b> have all appeared in these pages. The straight lines are obviously the antenna wire or tubing parts. But what about the center section--the so-called feedpoint?</p>
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<p>Somehow, because no one ever comes right out and says so, the newcomer must realize that the 3 sketches of the same antenna are highly presumptive about the feedpoint. First, we have the transmitting convention: most antenna parts go by names based on the antenna's use as a transmitting transducer, one that transforms RF (AC) energy into ever-expanding electromagnetic fields. Hence, we call the terminals the feedpoint to indicate that we are supplied with energy from a source (which always has a series resistance or impedance). We forget to footnote the name with the fact that the antenna works the other way around as well, intercepting electromagnetic fields and converting that energy into RF electrical energy. The device using that energy forms a load resistance or impedance for the antenna as a source.</p>
<p>We also generally fail to mention to newcomers that we have at least 2 ways to handle the antenna's source and its load. We can place the transmitter and/or the receiver directly at the antenna terminals, or we can remotely site the source and/or the load and use a transmission line to connect the two. Of course, the moment we mention a transmission line, we are into one of the mysteries of antennas that takes a longer time to bring into the light. Since we are just getting started in the area of antennas, we can simply think about the sloping antenna that we throw up during amateur field operations, or the collapsible whip on the FM receiver (or 2-m transceiver), to imagine how we may connect the source or the load directly to the antenna.</p>
<p>We also presume that newcomers can automatically and correctly read our conventional representation of the antenna's terminal impedance, whether resonant, inductively reactive, or capacitively reactive. The left part of <b>Fig. 2</b> shows how we conventionally draw the situation for an antenna with an inductively reactive terminal impedance.</p>
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<p>The right side of the figure redraws the terminal situation for a balanced dipole antenna and for a single-ended monopole termination. Many newcomers only much later realize that the dipole drawing is as legitimate a representation as the monopole sketch. For the dipole, we can show half the resistance and half the reactance on each of the two balanced terminals, since the antenna terminals are in series with the source or the load. If one of the two terminals connects to ground, then we may use the single-ended form. The sketches also show the way we handle reactance at the antenna terminals in the most usual cases. We compensate with an equal reactance of the opposite type. However, if we must also transform the resistive component to effect a match, then we enter another set of mysteries called networks (or more casually, antenna tuners). This arena is also one that takes time to master.</p>
<p>A perennial question that arises from antenna newcomers--especially those trying to build an antenna based upon an article they have read--is the gap between the terminals. How big or small should the gap be? Do we add the gap size to the antenna element length or is it included in the length? <b>Fig. 3</b> illustrates the problem and part of the solution.</p>
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<p>Except under direct interrogation, no one tells the newcomer that the smallest gap should be just wide enough to keep the half-elements from shorting together. But wider gaps will do, with due attention to frequency. On 80 meters, a foot-wide gap is fine, but at VHF, we want the smallest practical gap--perhaps as wide as the spacing of the conductors of the transmission line connected to the terminals. At lower frequencies, where the gap is wider than the transmission-line conductor spacing, the leads from the line to the terminals of the element become part of the element. There are limits to gap size at any frequency, but generally, the size of the gap has no effect on the element length from tip-to-tip.</p>
<p>These sample quandaries reflect the types of questions that newcomers often have (and are almost as often afraid to ask) about the casual and conventional ways in which we sketch antennas. There are others, but we should look at a few ideas involving basic antenna operation.</p>
<p><b>Some basic concepts applicable to antenna operation</b></p>
<p>If a newcomer asks how a dipole really operates, some respondents will send the individual to a basic college text for a "review" of Maxwell's Laws, Poynting Vectors, and the entire theoretical foundations of antenna theory. (At least an equal number of others will either admit that they do not know or provide a smoke screen of odds and ends to cover up that fact.) What we often forget is that the newcomer--if not in an EE class--may simply be looking for a reasonably accurate way to visualize the operation in order to develop some rational expectations of antennas and some foundation for understanding what appears in mid-level articles and handbooks. Something as simple as the sketch in <b>Fig. 4</b>, adapted from many texts, may do the basic job. It may also leave room for the individual to move at personal speed both back to the fundamentals and forward to the construction project.</p>
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<p>When the question-and-answer session is informal, we can stress only a few points and still get across the basic ideas. First, the concentration of charges is an instantaneous phenomenon, with polarity shifts in tune with the operating frequency. However, the concentration tells us why the ends of a wire antenna can be dangerous to anyone touching them during a transmission. Second, the current curve is a standing wave. If the antenna is a dipole, then the peak current occurs at the center of the element, right at the terminals. Third, the sketch omits the source's series resistance, which we assume is matched to the impedance of the dipole at its terminals, however long the dipole might be. Fourth, a true dipole can never be longer than 1/2 wavelength electrically, since if it grows longer, then current peaks occur on either side of the center point and not at the center. (This is a good time to remind the newcomer about how antenna terminology is often thrown about casually, so that we often name as a "dipole" almost any center-fed antenna.) Finally, we can enter into a discussion of the relationship between the center-fed wire's length and the terminal impedance conditions.</p>
<p>There is much more that we can reasonably say without ever introducing an equation, and it may all be helpful in developing reasonable expectations about antennas. Equations are also good, but only if the student is ready for them. However, we can also illustrate what we say. A well-wrought experiment is ideal, but usually the questions arise when we are not close to our materials and test equipment. However, if we have some modeling software, we can show the student what he or she needs to see. The materials in <b>Fig. 5</b> show especially the current magnitude and phase of the current standing wave on a resonant half wavelength dipole when it is transmitting or radiating.</p>
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<p>The particular set of diagrams happens to come from EZNEC. Other software may represent current in a similar way or the software may use a color coding to represent the maximum and minimum levels. Either technique can be equally effective in answering basic question, so long as the individual understands the conventions of the representation.</p>
<p>The transmitting situation of the current on a dipole is fairly easy to represent, since the model is simple. This one happens to be in free space, so everything is very nicely symmetrical about the antenna terminals. Actually, we can also represent the current situation on a receiving antenna with fair ease. Simply start with the transmitting antenna. Then create an identical dipole about a mile away. Do not forget to provide the receiving antenna with a load that is equal to its resonant impedance. After you run the model, examine the currents on the receiving antenna. You likely will see a current magnitude and phase angle curve like the one in <b>Fig. 6</b>.</p>
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<p>You can actually go into a good bit of detail here based on the modeling data. For example, if you look at the current calculation tables, you will find that the ratio of current magnitude between the tips and the center of both antennas is the same. This may also be a good time to open the question of aligned and cross polarization between linear antennas. All you have to do is change the axis along which you create either the transmitting or the receiving antenna. (Actually, the demonstration is most effective when you conduct it both ways.)</p>
<p>From this point, you can go in many directions. Usually, you will have to lead the newcomer to the right questions to ask. For example, what happens to the current along the wire if we make the wire longer, longer yet, and exceptionally long? Is there any regularity not only to the current curves but also to the development of lobes? (Here you may be in for a long session on the operation of a multi-band center-fed antenna, perhaps an 80-meter dipole operated on 10 meters, for example.) Are there ways to control the current phase along a center-fed wire that is very long? Suddenly you are working with collinear arrays. Why must the antenna be center-fed? How do lobes develop if we feed the wire at its end when it is multiple wavelengths long. Finally (for the moment), here is the best question: how is a vertical monopole like a dipole and how is it different?</p>
<p>One well-placed question leads to others. Education of newcomers lies in the questions, not just the answers. To further the process, every answer should lead to the next question(s).</p>
<p><b>Some basic concepts of antenna performance in numerical and graphical form</b></p>
<p>Although we might have continued the questions that arose from the simple dipole demonstration, we cannot forget that our goal is to orient the newcomer to read with understanding. The dipole discussion has already led us to look at antenna patterns and use terms like "polarization." These terms are part of a third cluster of ideas that a newcomer must naturalize: the conventions and concepts used to represent antenna performance.</p>
<p>Today, we tend to use graphical representations of antenna performance as much or more than numerical reports. Nevertheless, both rest upon measuring or calculating the far-field radiation pattern produced by the antenna (among other things). In turn, these patterns rest on some fundamental ideas that relate the antenna to its environment.</p>
<p>The most fundamental environment for an antenna is free-space, a limitless region in all possible directions with no up or down, since it lacks any references to make sense of these notions. Hence, we must use the antenna itself as a reference. Antennas with linear elements are handy in this regard, because we can distinguish an E-plane and an H-plane, as shown at the top left in <b>Fig. 7</b>.</p>
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<p>The E-plane is the plane of the antenna's electric field--the one of greatest importance to the far field--which occurs in a plane parallel to the axis of the element. As shown at the top right, a simple dipole has an indefinitely large number of possible E-planes. However, we tend to use the one that parallels the E-plane of flat multi-element arrays. The antenna's H-plane occurs at right angles to the element in alignment with the magnetic field. At the lower left in <b>Fig. 7</b> is the E-plane and the H-plane far-field radiation pattern for a typical 3-element Yagi. We may note that the two fields touch at the forward-most point of the pattern and again at the rear-most point. We should also note that the E-plane and the H-plane patterns have different shapes.</p>
<p>When we place the antenna over ground, say 1 wavelength above ground, our orientation changes. Now the ground and the pattern behavior together determine how we handle the performance representation. Instead of an H-plane pattern, we have an elevation pattern. Note the formation of elevation lobes and nulls that derive from the combining of the direct or incident waves from the antenna and from the ground reflections that may add or subtract from the incident waves. We call the elevation angle above the horizon where the radiation is strongest or the gain is the highest the take-off (TO) angle. In this case, the angle is 14 degrees.</p>
<p>The pattern that circles the antenna is the azimuth pattern. The pattern corresponds in this case to the E-plane pattern of the free-space situation. Since the plane of the elements is horizontal relative to ground, and since all of the elements are linear, we can also say that the antenna is horizontally polarized. However, if we had set up the antenna with the elements vertical with respect to ground, we would take the azimuth pattern that corresponds to the H-plane pattern of the free-space situation. As well, the antenna is now vertically polarized.</p>
<p>We do not take the azimuth pattern at the level of the horizon. Instead, we normally take the pattern at a higher angle, most usually the TO elevation angle, although we may use other elevation angles as the need arises. The azimuth pattern actually forms a conical section from the origin of the system with a 14-degree angle. With such low angles, transferring that conical section to a flat graph causes negligible distortion, but at very high angles, the distortion may be considerable.</p>
<p>The more complex the patterns, the more parts we have to consider, and every part has two aspects: a name and some associated numbers. The top section of <b>Fig. 8</b> shows some of the parts of the typical azimuth pattern. This pattern is laid out on a circular grid. The angular notations are clear. The pattern strength numbers of the various rings may be less clear initially. This pattern uses a logarithmic ring scale. Other patterns may use a linear scale. Proponents of linear scales believe that they show pattern detail more realistically, but they do require that the user determine a minimum gain value for the innermost ring. In contrast, the log scale is uniform from one application to another.</p>
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<p>The pattern is also normalized. To normalize a pattern, we set the gain of the outer ring to the maximum gain of the antenna. All other parts of the pattern show how much weaker the gain is relative to maximum gain. To find out the maximum gain, we must consult the numerical data. For our pattern, the maximum gain is about 12 dBi. A dB is 10 times the common log of the ratio of any two powers in the same units. We generally record gain vales in dB relative to some standard antenna, either real or theoretical. The most common standard today is the gain in decibels above an isotropic source, that is, one that radiates equally well in free space in every possible direction. A few decades ago, most amateur antenna articles showed the gain in dBd, the gain over a free-space dipole. By definition, a free-space ideal dipole has a gain of 2.15 dBi. So the two measures are supposedly interchangeable. The use of dBi prevents confusion over whether a gain recorded in dBd is the gain of a free-space dipole or the gain of a real test dipole in the same position as the antenna being considered. When we encounter a gain in dB with no reference, we know that some comparison is being made, perhaps between two antennas. (If the gain value in "bare" dB appears in an advertisement, then we know to be suspicious.)</p>
<p>Every lobe of interest in a radiation pattern has a beamwidth. We are generally interested in the main forward lobe of directional antennas, although other lobes may interest us for special reasons. We conventionally define the beamwidth in degrees between points on the pattern that show half the power of the point of maximum gain. Half the power means -3 dB. For a maximum gain of 12 dBi, the beamwidth is the angle between points on the lobe where the gain is 9 dBi. Note that I have been referring to the main forward lobe and not simply to the forward lobe. Although this pattern has only one forward lobe, many antennas have secondary lobes in the generally forward direction.</p>
<p>The rear quadrants are especially interesting. The present antenna shows 3 rearward lobes; other antennas may shows from 1 to very many lobes. We call the ratio of power gains in the forward direction and the rear direction the front-to-back ratio. However, there are numerous ways to obtain the ratio and multiple names for some ways. If we take a bearing 180 degrees opposite the bearing of the strongest forward gain, then we have the 180-degree front-to-back ratio. In some cases, the 180-degree direction does not show the strongest rearward lobe. We can also compare the gain of the forward lobe with the strongest rearward lobe and arrive at a worst-case front-to-back ratio (which some call the front-to-rear ratio). More commonly, the front-to-rear ratio averages all of the gain values in the rearward quadrants and compares that value with the forward gain. (But some call this value an average front-to-back value.) The lesson is to obtain not only the numbers, but also the foundation for those numbers before reaching any conclusions about antenna performance.</p>
<p>The elevation pattern, shown at the bottom of <b>Fig. 8</b>, also uses a log ring scale and it also has parts. Here, I have changed the antenna to a vertical dipole with its center point (or terminals) 1/4 wavelength above ground. The elevation patterns shows a stronger lower lobe with a TO angle. This lobe has a vertical beamwidth that rests on the same half-power points that we used to obtain the azimuth pattern beamwidth. The vertical beamwidth gives us an idea of over what range of propagation angles the antenna may be effective.</p>
<p>Compare the elevation pattern in this figure for a vertical dipole with the outline of the elevation pattern for the horizontal Yagi in <b>Fig. 7</b>. Although horizontal antennas produce distinct lobes and nulls based mostly on the height of the antenna above ground, vertical antenna below a few wavelengths above ground are less orderly in the development of secondary elevation lobes. The higher-angle lobe of the vertical dipole has only a shallow null between it and the lower main lobe. In some cases, the two lobes may merge and obscure just where the null should be.</p>
<p>Although I shall not add them here, we may graph almost any data about antenna performance on rectangular graphs. Even the pattern data is apt for such treatment. More usually, we find rectangular graphs that show important performance information over a spread of frequencies or a "sweep." We might graph over the selected frequencies such data as the maximum forward gain, the TO angle, the front-to-back ratio, the strength of any forward sidelobes, the feedpoint impedance, or the SWR relative to a standard, such as 50 Ohms.</p>
<p><b>Conclusion</b></p>
<p>These brief notes only scratch the surface of the basic concepts and conventions that the newcomer to antennas must eventually master to appreciate fully the great mass of literature that is available. Nothing here is at all complete or adequate. I have only said enough to indicate the importance of some of the ideas, terms, conventions, and representations. I have not presented any kind of cohesive treatise. Still, we can note that nomenclature and conventions interweave with substantive antenna operation basics, so that to learn one is to learn the other. Learning to talk rightly is one step toward learning to talk sensibly.</p>
<p>Indeed, when I look even at this truncated list of terms and conventions applicable to antennas, I am somewhat surprised that any newcomer does master them. But they do! The learning curve is longer or shorter, depending upon the help available and the impediments to learning that abound in some quarters. Readers of amateur journals and participants in the discussions have access to expert assistance, even for basic matters. Remember that all of the expert assistance available from the experienced antenna workers comes from folks who once upon a time were also newcomers. At one time or another, we have all had the same basic questions to ask--and have hesitated to ask them, lest we look ignorant. However, there is only one bad question, and that is the one that goes unasked.</p>
<p>Antennas are less a problem than they are a challenge. For many the challenge is fascinating, an endless field of things to be learned. In a sense, we are all newcomers to what has yet to be discovered.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 06-15-2007. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1><img src="../images/hat.gif" align="left" width="72" height="84" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9"> <img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="right" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9"> Everything Old Is New Again</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>Sometimes an old article in a ham magazine shows you that some of your finest achievements are only extensions of much older work. That lesson came home to me in an article (actually, 2 articles in one) in <b><i>QST</i></b> for October, 1937. Peter Dodd, G3LPO called my attention to the piece, because it had a forerunner of the VK2ABQ square. Actually, the articles had a lot more.</p>
<p>The composite article, called "Concentrated Directional Antennas for Transmission and Reception," (pp. 27-30), was put together because "Rhombics and multiple arrays of conventional form give high gains--but even for the 14-Mc band, they take considerably more yardage than most of us have available. Therefore, concentrated directional systems which are more readily fitted into the usual back yard have a distinct appeal. . .." It is interesting that the editor chose to call these small and possibly directional antennas "concentrated." The term conjures many images, although nothing clearly electronic. Such imagery--sometimes useful, sometimes misleading--was more common in the 1930s than it is today.</p>
<p>The second thread that connects the two articles is that the first is by John L. Reinartz, W1QP. The second is by Dr. Burton T. Simpson, W8CPC, based on some suggestions made to him by Reinartz.</p>
<h3>The Half-Wavelength Loop</h3>Reinartz writes on "Half-Wavelength Loop Antennas." One of his basic designs is a square, 1/8 wl on a side. The square is open for the feedline in the middle of one edge, and in the middle of the opposite edge is a gap. Reinartz analyzes the antenna to have a low feedpoint impedance, and uses 72-Ohm line to feed it. The basic design appears in Figure 1.
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<p>Interestingly enough, in another notebook item in this collection, <a href="../wire/ilzx.html"><b>The IL-ZX Antenna for 40 Meters</b></a>, I presented a compact loop of intermediate size. The major difference between the Reinartz design and the one in my notes is the use of a double winding. The double IL-ZX winding acts as an impedance transformer to raise the very low loop impedance to coax levels. The double loop, if brought to something of a point on each side of the gap, permits easier antenna adjustment for resonance.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, it is good to know where (or perhaps only approximately where) the design had its start. The field strength noted by W1QP is recorded as "about 28%, as compared to a straight half-wave dipole." The double loop shows a better performance level, being down from a modeled free space dipole by only about 1.1 dB and just a little more than that when set up near ground as a vertically polarized antenna. Since it is not possible to devise a perfectly comparable placement vertically over ground for both the loop and a linear dipole, gain comparisons are elusive. The antenna shows about a 4 dB front-to-side ratio, but not more than about 0.1 dB front-to-back. Reinartz believed he got a significantly higher front-to-back ratio, which I have not been able to replicate in models.</p>
<p>In 1937, the typical amateur station tuned both the antenna and the rig together, adjusting the antenna and the coupling to the final tank (parallel tuned) circuit simultaneously. The era of fixed or even narrow range of output impedances for transmitters had yet to emerge. Further adjustment of the impedance match involved simply widening the feedpoint gap, which provided spread the feedline and increased its impedance at the antenna terminals. Hence, determining the actual operating conditions of the W1QP 1/2 wl loop is nearly impossible without further precision in the account. However, such precision, even if available, would have been spurious to the ordinary ham of the era, since the means of achieving maximum power output without exceeding (catastrophically) the plate current ratings of the final amplifier tubes varied considerably among stations.</p>
<p>Finding the origins of one antenna design is a nice day's work. Finding two is serendipity.</p>
<h3>The 1-Wavelength Square</h3>Between the work of Fred Caton, VK2ABQ, and recent developments employing its offspring, the (Les) Moxon (G6XN) rectangle, there is a continuity. (Some minor improvements appear in other notes of this collection, for example, <a href="../moxon/moxon.html"><b>Moxon Rectangles for 40-10 Meters</b></a> and <a href="../moxon/mox.html"><b>An Aluminum Moxon Rectangle for 10-Meters</b></a>. However, as Peter Dodd has pointed out in the 2nd edition of his <b><i>Antenna Experimenter's Guide</i></b> (pp. 99-100), there is a more distant predecessor, "A Square 'Signal Squirter' for 14 Mc." W8CPC credits W1QP for the suggestions that led to his proto-VK2ABQ square. The basic suggestion was that most of the radiation from a standard 1/2 wl dipole emerges from the center half of the antenna wire. The lower current end portions might be bent back with little loss.
<p>The expression "signal squirter" seems today to be almost baby talk. However, in the 1930s. new operators were often called "young squirts," not just because many were very young (which is incidentally true), but because they were new to the game of "squirting" RF around the world. Imagistically, the rig and antenna formed the world's most perfect atomizer, with a mist finer than any perfumer ever dared dream. Note how easy it is to get carried away by the everyday metaphors of 1930s amateur radio.</p>
<p>The Simpson electrical design is shown in Figure 2. We can bypass the extensive reinforced and rotatable wooden square on which the antenna turned.</p>
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<p>Simpson specifies a spacing of 16' 6" from front to back, and the wood frame he used, bristling with ceramic insulators to support the 1/4" diameter copper tubing suggest a similar dimension side-to-side. What affect the many metal reinforcement plates had on antenna performance is impossible to tell at this distance.</p>
<p>Like the VK2ABQ square, the W8CPC antenna separates two folded-back dipoles with a small end gap. The tubing ends were 18" apart, but each end had a brass rod insert to adjust the gap. Tuning up the antenna involved simultaneous adjustments to both the transmitter and antenna, using an RF ammeter across a temporary gap in the reflector. Again, the feedpoint gap was fairly large by current standards, allowing a variable length spread in the feeders as an aid to matching--where matching means maximum power transfer to the antenna. In this case, the transfer was measured in terms of reflector element current levels. When tune-up was complete, another brass rod closed the gap left by removing the RF meter.</p>
<p>Having modeled a number of VK2ABQ designs, I am aware of the critical nature of the gap in the end of the two elements. There are actually two gap settings that provide forward gain and a front-to-back ratio. The narrower gap provides more gain but what we would today consider mediocre front-to-back ratio, while a much wider gap provides a current on the reflector that is nearly perfect in magnitude and phase to yield a maximum rear null (&gt;30 dB), but at the cost of over a dB of gain. (Similar results accrue to the Moxon rectangle, but with considerably greater ease of finding the right dimensions to use with no post-assembly adjustment required.)</p>
<p>The gap required for a maximum front-to-back ratio exceeds by a wide margin the range of adjustment available in the W8CPC design. Hence, I have to conclude that he adjusted his antenna for a quite narrow gap, something close to 1". The trick is the position of the gap. Using a 16' 6" square, one can terminate the driver 4" forward of the side-to-side center line. If the reflector is then brought within an inch of the driver, the loop can yield about 5.1 dB forward gain and about 5.0 dB front-to-back ratio. If the same gap size is transferred to the 8.5 and 7.5 inch positions, the gain drops to about 4.7 dB, but the front-to-back ratio exceeds 8.0 dB. This is about the maximum movement forward of the center-line within the +/-9" range of adjustability in the antenna. For both cases, the source impedance is less than 150 Ohms, considered low in those days, and both settings are within 18 Ohms reactance of resonance at the target frequency.</p>
<p>I cannot be certain that my models have captured the Simpson design exactly, especially in view of his claim of about a 7 S-unit difference in a DX report of his signal forward and reverse. However, they are indicative of the kind of performance that might be typically achieved by the antenna type. The numbers from these models are consistent with models of the 1" coat-button spaced wire antennas in the VK2ABQ collection. Clearly, the Simpson square is a close match to the VK2ABQ squares, apparently without direct lineal connection. And it follows that all contemporary variations on the square and the folded-back rectangle share a common root going back at least to 1937.</p>
<h3>Appreciation of the Past</h3>Am I finished with these antenna designs from the past? Not completely. If nothing else, there is that elusive front-to-back ratio claimed by both authors. So far I have not been able to reproduce it an models. Rather than conclude hastily that it is not there, I prefer to think that perhaps there are more models to try. If I find anything, I shall certainly add the results to this note.
<p>Some antenna designers and analysts might be disturbed--even discouraged--by the discovery that their seemingly new offspring are intimately related to designs of the more distant past. I do not share that view. Instead, I am happy to pay homage to past work and to grow in my appreciation of how well basic design principles were known 6 decades ago. The 1930s comprise a fertile decade for design thinking in antennas, and vast strides were made in pressing wire antennas to their limits.</p>
<p>It would take the 1980s and 1990s to yield new techniques of software to allow some of the older design principles to be implemented with assured performance. Moreover, new ground is being broken daily in antenna design. However, we should not let contemporary development rates lead to the impression that "they knew hardly anything back then." They knew a very great deal--and developed ingenious ways of making it work in the absence of the complex antenna analyzers and other test equipment we have at our disposal today.</p>
<p>It is no slur against current design and analysis efforts to suggest that they mostly carry out the details of principles long known. Those details are crucial to making antennas perform to the peaks that the principles promised but that older measurement and calculation limitations could not assure. (One might get a sense of the importance of recent developments by asking when the 1920s work of Yagi and Uda started yielding really good antenna designs instead of really good antenna claims.) Perfecting the implementation of basic principles is a worthy enterprise in any era.</p>
<p>At the same time, new principles and techniques are also emerging today. Someday, they will be the more distant past to which we look with admiration. But at just this moment, October, 1937, will do as a past worth at least my own appreciation.</p>
<p>I want to thank W6TOY, W6ZH, W3/V31FA, and KE6RIE, all of whom came to my rescue in locating a copy of these studies. Several of these gentlemen expressed the hope that I could do something good with the articles. However, it is truer to say that the articles did something good for me.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 10-28-1998, 10-28-2006. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i><br>
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<h1>Historical Q Signals</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>For those who have an interest in history or who are building a time machine, here are the international communications Q-signals from the 1930 <i><b>American Radio Relay League Handbook</b></i>.<br></p>
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<h3>1930 ARRL Handbook Q-Signal List (pp. 198-200)</h3>
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Meanings abbreviated. With ?, = question; without = statement
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<table border="5" cellpadding="15" cellspacing="1">
<tr>
<th>Q-Signal</th>
<th>Explanation</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRA</td>
<td>Name of station</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRB</td>
<td>Approximate distance from your station to mine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRC</td>
<td>Accounts for charges to station liquidated by xxx private company</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRD</td>
<td>Where are you going; I am going to xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRE</td>
<td>Nationality of station</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRF</td>
<td>Where do you come from; I come from xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRG</td>
<td>Your exact wavelength in meters or frequency in kilocycles</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRH</td>
<td>My exact wavelength of frequency</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRI</td>
<td>Is my tone bad; my tone is bad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRJ</td>
<td>Cannot receive you, signals too weak</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRK</td>
<td>Receive you well, signals good</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRL</td>
<td>Are you busy; I am busy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRM</td>
<td>Being interfered with</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRN</td>
<td>Troubled by atmospherics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRO</td>
<td>Increase power</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRP</td>
<td>Decrease power</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRQ</td>
<td>Send faster</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRS</td>
<td>Send more slowly</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRT</td>
<td>Stop sending</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRU</td>
<td>Have you anything for me; I have nothing for you</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRV</td>
<td>Send series of Vs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRW</td>
<td>Advise xxx that I am calling him</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRX</td>
<td>Must I wait; wait!</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRY</td>
<td>Which is my turn; your turn is xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QRZ</td>
<td>Who is calling me; you a being called by xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSA</td>
<td>Strength of signal (1-5)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSB</td>
<td>Strength of signal varies</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSC</td>
<td>Signal disappears entirely at intervals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSD</td>
<td>Is my keying bad; keying is bad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSE</td>
<td>Signals distinct? Signals run together</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSF</td>
<td>Automatic transmission good? Automatic transmission fades out</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSG</td>
<td>Transmit telegrams by series of 5, 10, or xx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSH</td>
<td>Send telegram one at a time</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSI</td>
<td>Send telegrams in alternate order without repetitions</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSJ</td>
<td>Charge to be collected per word</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSK</td>
<td>Suspend traffic and call again at (time)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSL</td>
<td>Acknowledgement of receipt</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSM</td>
<td>Received acknowledgement of receipt</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSN</td>
<td>Can you receive me now; cannot receive you now</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSO</td>
<td>Can you/I can communicate with xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSP</td>
<td>Relay free of charge</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSQ</td>
<td>Send each word or group once</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSR</td>
<td>Distress call from xxx has been attended to by yyy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSU</td>
<td>Send on xxx meters (kilocycles) waves of Type A1, A2, A3, or B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSV</td>
<td>Shift to wave of xxx meters (kilocycles) for rest of communications</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSW</td>
<td>I will send on xxx meters (kilocycles) waves of Type A1, A2, A3, or B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSX</td>
<td>Wavelength (frequency) varies</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSY</td>
<td>Send on xxx meters (kilocycles) without changing type of wave</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QSZ</td>
<td>Send each word or group twice</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTA</td>
<td>Cancel telegram # xxx if not yet sent</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTB</td>
<td>Agree with word count? I do not agree with word count</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTC</td>
<td>Number of telegrams sent</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTD</td>
<td>Word count that you are confirming is accepted</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTE</td>
<td>True bearing is xxx degrees</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTF</td>
<td>Position of your station based on bearings is xxx</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTG</td>
<td>1 minute call signal for radio compass bearings</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTH</td>
<td>Position in latitude/longitude (or any other indication)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTI</td>
<td>True course</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTJ</td>
<td>Speed in knots</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTK</td>
<td>True bearing relative to me is xxx degrees</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTL</td>
<td>Sending signals to permit bearing with respect to the radio beacon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTM</td>
<td>Sending radio and submarine sound signals to permit bearing and distance</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTN</td>
<td>Cannot take bearing of your station</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTP</td>
<td>Going to enter dock or port</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTR</td>
<td>Exact time</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTS</td>
<td>True bearing of my station relative to you</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QTU</td>
<td>Station open from xxx to yyy (times)</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<p>The 1930's list from the <i><b>American Radio Relay League Handbook</b></i> is only a partial listing of Q-signals, even at that early date. Like lists in more current ARRL handbooks and operating manuals, the 1930 list contains only those signals thought to be of most use to radio amateurs.</p>
<p>A later (world War II) listing is fairly common among CW fans. My copy of the <i><b>Combined Operating Signals</b></i>, a joint U.S.-British production, dates from 1944 and contains only Q-signals, omitting the Z- series and, of course, ARRL's later N- series. My thanks to VE3DNY for sending me a photocopy. Virtually the entire set of combinations appears, with only a few left blank for future use. Each signal is listed twice: once on a left-hand alphabetical listing page and again on a right-hand topical page. The system begins to fold back upon itself. For example, QQP means "Check correctness of last QDR given." This is opaque unless one knows that QDR means "Your magnetic bearing in relation to me is xxx." However opaque the system may seem, the document contains the following warning: "These operating signals possess no security and must be regarded as equivalent to plain language. This must be borne in mind by all users and great care must be taken to avoid giving away information of value to the enemy." The enemy that the authors of the manual had in mind was NOT users of telephony in any of its forms or even non-hams.</p>
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<p><i>Updated 02-10-1998, 01-08-2001. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1><img src="../images/yagicad.gif" align="left" width="125" height="62" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10"><img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="right" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10">A Time to Reminisce<br>
(Christmas, 1997)</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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When I was very young and could tell a flea from a gnat with my bare eyes, they gave me radio components that I could hold in my hands and from which I could build a super-regenerative 10-meter receiver and squeeze out a little 10-meter power by adding another multiplier after the crystal oscillator.
<p>The next time I looked, I could barely distinguish without glasses a mole from a vole from a mouse, and they gave me transistors to hold with my needle-nose pliers when soldering and reminded me that I still needed to neutralize my 10-meter finals.</p>
<p>Now that I can just barely tell a horse from a camel even wearing my glasses, they give me parts to hold with tweezers while plugging them into circuit board holes smaller than human hairs and offer me complete 10-meter rigs that fit in my hand.</p>
<p>I do not know which I miss more: those big warm parts or those good eyes. Thank goodness 10-meter operators have not changed much over the years-- still the best part and heart of hamming. And if they happen to be running CW QRP from a hilltop, then my heart runs warm, even if the parts run cool.<br>
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<p><i>Updated 2-21-98. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author. This item first appeared on TENTEN-L and in</i> The County Line RoadRunner <i>Feb, 1998.</i><br>
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<h1>The RST Standard of Reporting</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<h4>Part 1: The RST System Itself</h4>The RST (Readability-Strength-Tone) system of reporting with which we are all familiar (or are we?) goes back to 1934. The S-meter name was derived from the S in RST. Before (and for some time after) that, receiver meters were sometimes called R-meters (and sometimes just "signal" meters) after an earlier system proposed for amateur use and terminated at either 5 or 9. The difference in the 2 scales results directly from the change brought about in the standard RST report system between 1925 and 1936. These vacuum-tube voltmeters inside the receiver were used as much to align the receiver as to determine the strength of incoming signals.
<p>Most S-meters were and are still a derivative function of AGC (called AVC by many in those days) and thus cannot exactly parallel the RST system. Few S-meter circuits are able to meet the proposed standard of S9=50 microvolts, with each S-unit equaling a 6 dB reduction from that level. The more signal processing we insert before the detection of a voltage roughly corresponding to signal strength, the more troubles we encounter with the accuracy of the system. Moreover, receiver gain distribution tends to vary from band to band (which is why <i>QST</i> product reviews rate sensitivity on various bands). Hence, the standard proposed in the early 1940s was never adopted by manufacturer's, even though S-meters are given printed scales as if the system were universal.</p>
<p>Between S1 and S9, a well-calibrated meter can provide a reasonable indication of signal strength that parallels the original RST system. In contrast, S9+40 is a sort of meaningless extra in conversation relative to the system. It is extraneous precision for the term "extremely strong signals" on an electronic system (the receiver) that has been shown time and time again to be quite imprecise. Hence, S9+40 is almost the SSB equivalent of Dave's World talk--and of a world where the thing rules the operator rather than the operator ruling the thing (the meter).</p>
<p>Unfortunately, few if any transceivers have well-calibrated S-meters. For a review of the performance of some recent transceivers, see the website of Greg Ordy, W8WWV <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211205154313/http://www.seed-solutions.com/gregordy/" target="_blank">www.seed-solutions.com/gregordy/</a> (web.archive.org) and look at two special items: "S Meter Blues" and "S Meter Lite." The latter is an attempt to overcome transceiver S-meter limitations with better-calibrated software.</p>
<p>The only way for the meter to be precisely in tune with the RST reporting system at the low end is to have S1 as the left needle rest marking. Then, you give S1 if you can hear the non-needle mover and give nothing if you cannot hear him. If S1=a certain number of microvolts of signal strength, the needle does not move until there is that number +1 (or +.001, etc.). Everything else that is lower is still S1. Or it is silence, since a person cannot give a report to a station he does not hear (nets and contests not included). This means of meter calibration would make the meter again partially track the RST standard.</p>
<p>If we turn the question around and require that the reporting system parallel the action of meters, then we need a new standard by which to report. The RST system of reporting is a standard and was developed to be a standard. It is not and was never intended to be a large collection of individual interpretations and inventions. Rather, it is a standard agreed upon and promulgated to everyone for standard use, in essence, an ITU standard paralleling all those used in physics and electronics that have been agreed upon by recognized bodies representative of all users.</p>
<p>Until a new standard exists, the current standard places the RST system ahead of meter readings and "S" runs from 1 to 9. Those who insist upon putting their own revisions into practice--however widespread--only create confusion--like inventing a new set of meanings for voltage, current, and resistance such that E=2IR: quite possible, but confusing to casual readers.</p>
<p>A following notes may form some historical background to my comments concerning RST as a standard.</p>
<p>The earliest system of signal reporting emerged from the Q-signal system and included QSA (signal strength). In the May, 1925, issue of <i>QSI</i>, we find in the back pages (specifically, page 63, following correspondence) the following note.</p>
<blockquote>
It has been suggested that the R system of indicating audibility be used instead of the ineffective QSA-QRZ-QRK arrangement in practice now. This has been suggested by a number of correspondents and isundoubtedly an improvement so the list is given below. Hang it by your set and make use of it.<br>
R1--Faint signals, just audible.<br>
R2--Weak signals, barely readable.<br>
R3--Weak signals, but readable.<br>
R4--Fair signals, easily readable.<br>
R5--Moderately strong signals.<br>
R6--Strong signals.<br>
R7--Good strong signals. Would be readable through heavy QRN and QRM.<br>
R8--Very strong signals. Several feel-from-phones stuff.<br>
R9--Extremely strong signals.
</blockquote>
<p>From the <i>QST</i> text, it is clear that the R-system existed informally and for some time before this mention by ARRL. From this system emetged the ealiest reference to signal strengh meters as R-meters. The system is not the full RST system that was soon to emerge.</p>
<p>In the 1930 <i>ARRL Handbook</i>, there is no mention of RST. Rather, the standard log page shows reference to QSA (Strength of signals on a scale of 1 to 5) and tone, given as a set of remarks (pp. 195-96). An alternative to the word "tone" was QRI? ("Is my tone bad?" as if the expected reply would be "yes.") Q-signals were the universal means of conveying complex questions and information quickly in early radio, augmented by the Phillips code, Navy signals, and a few other sources.</p>
<p>The 1936 <i>ARRL Handbook</i> (the next in my collection) reports (p. 323) that the basic version of the modern (?) RST system was proposed in 1934 by W2BSR. (See Arthur M. Braaten, W2BSR, "A New Standard System of Reporting signals," <i>QST</i>, (October, 1934), pages 18, 19, 106, 108.) Braaten's article followed a piece in August, 1934, by D. C. Redgrave, KA1NA, that emphasized the need for a change in the reporting of signals due to inconsistencies of usage. His proposal ("FRAME") was far more complicated than the W2BSR proposal. The original RST system used a 559 scale to preserve the QSA range. "T" was very detailed, since the achievement of a "Purest d.c. note" was a function of many factors, including poor or nonexistent power supply filtration and what was then known as musical modulation and whistle. A recent article in <i>Funkamateur</i> shows a pair of QSL cards from W2BSR, a 1934 version using QSA and a 1935 update using RST. See Wolf Harrath, OE1WHC, "Wie gut, wie stark, wie rein? 72 Jahre RST-System," <i>Funkamateur</i>, (November, 2006), pages 1260-1262. Braaten's original set of signal strength categories were as follows (from page 19 of the <i>QST</i> article). Compare the categories to those appearing in the tables later in these note.</p>
<blockquote>
Signal Strength<br>
1. Faint--signals barely perceptible<br>
2. Weak signals<br>
3. Fairly good signals<br>
4. Good signals<br>
5. Very strong signals
</blockquote>
<p>ARRL enthusiatically adopted the RST system of signal reporting as "logical and brief," not to mention "increasingly satisfying as you keep using it" (from the prologue to the Braaten article by ARRL's Communication Manager).</p>
<p>"Some time later," W2BSR made a second proposal to expand the strength scale to 1 to 9 to accommodate finer gradations of perceived signal strength. (This step must have occurred either late in 1934 or early in 1935, since the copyright date of the '36 <i>Handbook</i> is October, 1935.) In 1936, an RST followed by "X" for the appearance of crystal control (for frequency stability) already existed, but there is no mention of "K" for key clicks is given. The 1947 <i>Handbook</i> adds "C" for chirp (p. 466), while retaining the 1936 meaning for the T-numbers. By 1952 the "K" appears, but the RST system had become such a standard part of amateur operations, that the editors moved the chart to the "Miscellaneous Data" chapter without any accompanying textual comment (p. 547).</p>
<p>To receive a report in 1936, one sent "RST?" or "QRK?" ("Are you receiving me well?") RST was an evolving standard, and reports were not yet sent by everyone as part of the first exchange. The '36 <i>Handbook</i> refers to the RST system as "the present standard recommended for your use" (p. 323).</p>
<p>Between 1936 and 1995, the meanings of the 5 R-numbers and the 9 S-numbers did not change. Sometime between 1970 and 1978 (the space between <i>Handbooks</i> in my collection), the T-numbers took on their current meanings. The T-scale was altered in wording to reflect changing problems in achieving pure CW. In the 30s, T represented what the ham constructor had achieved. In modern times, it largely indicates a malfunction of some stage in a transmitter. T-6 now means "Filtered tone, definite trace of ripple modulation." Between 1934 and the early 70s, it was interpreted as "Modulated note, slight trace of whistle." See the accompanying table for further details on "T" and a reminder of the meanings of the rest of the numbers.<br>
<br></p>
<center>
<h3>Table. 1. The RST system in 1936 and in 1995.</h3>
</center>
<table cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10">
<tr>
<td>
<center>
<b>R: Same in '36 and '95</b>
</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>
<b>S: Same in '36 and '95</b>
</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1 Unreadable</td>
<td>1 Faint signals, barely perceptible</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2 Barely readable, occasional words distinguishable</td>
<td>2 Very weak signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3 Readable with considerably difficulty</td>
<td>3 Weak signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4 Readable with practically no difficulty</td>
<td>4 Fair signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>5 Perfectly readable</td>
<td>5 Fairly good signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>6 Good signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>7 Moderately strong signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>8 Strong signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>9 Extremely strong signals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<center>
<b>T: 1936</b>
</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>
<b>T: 1995</b>
</center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1 Extremely rough hissing note</td>
<td>1 Sixty-cycle ac or less, very rough and broad</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2 Very rough a.c. note, no trace of musicality; broad</td>
<td>2 Very rough ac, very harsh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3 Rough, low-pitched a.c. note, slightly musical</td>
<td>3 Rough ac tone, rectified but not filtered</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4 Rather rough a.c. note; moderately musical</td>
<td>4 Rough note, some trace of filtering</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>5 Musically modulated note</td>
<td>5 Filtered rectified ac, but strongly ripple-modulated</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>6 Modulated note, slight trace of whistle</td>
<td>6 Filtered tone, definite trace of ripple modulation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7 Near d.c. note, smooth ripple</td>
<td>7 Near pure tone, trace of ripple modulation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>8 Good d.c. note, just a trace of ripple</td>
<td>8 Near perfect tone, slight trace of modulation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9 Purest d.c. note</td>
<td>9 Perfect tone, no trace of ripple or modulation of any kind</td>
</tr>
</table><br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<p>Does the RST standard system of reporting need change? Perhaps "R" is not to be changed, since it represents a measure of readability to the receiving operator. Is "S" a strict measure (a standardized meter reading), a relative measure (based on how signals sound compared to each other on a given occasion with given band conditions), or a subjective measure (of how the receiving operator feels about the incoming signal)? What can "S" be as a standard for the next century? Does "T" need revision, omission, or mention only when the note is other than purest d.c.? Perhaps QRP operators are in the best position to contribute to a revised standard applicable to them or to everyone since they work at power levels where the report is most meaningful.</p>
<p>If good QRP practice does require a new standard for RST, then let there be a deliberative body representative of all the QRP organizations, and let this body study the problem, receive input from all interested operators, consider all the aspects of the problem, and develop a new standard. Further, let all QRP organizations making studies, issuing awards, and publishing operating accomplishments formally adopt the new standard and insist that all data input to them be in accord with the new standard. At that time, deviant input must be rejected or revised to meet the new standard.</p>
<p>Until then, the <i>de facto</i> standard is that which appears in handbooks and which takes precedence over meters. Until we go through the process of creating a better standard, we can either report in accord with the standard to the best of our operating skill or we can be deviant (or "cool"). If the latter, we owe it to other QRP operators to let them know which we are doing so that operator may discount our report. If the former, then we are committed to applying our best efforts and skills to master the art of reporting uniformly with others who are also committed to the standard. The uniformity cannot be perfect, but it can be reliable.</p>
<p>"R" reports may improve as we better master the art of copying CW (or SSB). Recognizing CW signal faults may require much practice in this day and age when almost all rigs produce clean CW. Strength reporting may be the most controversial part of the process. If the RST system is the standard, then the use of meters is an aid to reporting signal strength, but it is not as the standard itself. Should anyone report my signal as S0, I shall stop transmitting, since that is--by the standard--evidence of non-contact, and except for CQ and QST (no, not the magazines), non-contact transmissions except for brief tests and known beacons are not regulatorily approved. If someone gives me an S9+anything, then that is only a cue to reduce power. Only the S9 goes in the logbook/disk.</p>
<p>Of course, virtually all BIG contest reports and dx pile-up reports are meaningless. But that fact does not say that QRP operators must adopt the meaningless. They can still adhere to the operative standard for maximum information transferral until such time as a better standard is adopted--if there is one.</p>
<p>Anyone care to lead the effort to form an international body to study the question and develop a new standard for the 21st century?</p>
<p>Whatever may transpire, I recommend that we always keep the other operator in mind as we use the present RST system for the transferal of the most precise information permitted by the standard. We can always add notes in our own logs for impressions of the band conditions, etc. But as the 1936 <i>Handbook</i> notes, the RST system is a complete and efficient report in its own right to the other operator.</p>
<h4>The S-Meter System</h4>Although derived from the "S" in "RST" and its preceding Q-signals, the S-meter system of reporting signal strength has taken on a life of its own. Because the system is mathematically derived from a base signal level of S9 that corresponds to a received signal strength that can be measured in micro-volts or in dBm, the S-meter system can give meaning to a report that S is zero--or even below zero.
<p>When originally proposed, the S-meter system would use 6-dB increments below the base level for each S-level lower than 9. As noted earlier, difficulties in setting band-to-band receiver response led to the proposal falling into a limbo in which receiver manufacturers adhered to a general sense of the system, but S-units varied considerably (by up to a full dB) in increments between S-levels as we move from one receiver maker to another (using the same frequency for testing).</p>
<p>More recent events have renewed interest in standardizing the S-meter system. Reports of interfering signals and noise from amateurs to regulatory agencies have become common and provide a source of data for at least some of these agencies. However, most such agencies are more familiar with signal levels registered in micro-volts or in dB(uV)/dBm than in amateur S-levels. Hence, a reliable conversion scheme is once more in order. What the future of DSP and similar receiver developments may hold in store for overcoming the once insurmountable problem of variable receiver response (especially as related to the AGC system from which S-meter readings were derived), I cannot say.</p>
<p>A precise system of conversion requires--if it is to handle both signal and noise sources--a bandwidth for measurement as well as a signal strength reading. I am indebted to Hans-Joachim Brandt, DJ1ZB, leader of the study group of DARC (Deutscher Amateur Radio Club) for providing the table that they are submitting to the German national standards organization. Once fully accepted in Germany, the table may well be distributed widely among national government agencies and (hopefully) among receiver makers.</p>
<p>The following graphic presents the table exactly as I received it, including the European convention of using a "," instead of the U.S. "." to represent a decimal. I have not wished to change anything in the table. However, I shall update the table should I receive a revision from DARC or any U.S. regulatory source accepting a similar standard. An alternative version (from IARU Region 1 Recommendation R1, 1990) appears in Tabelle 4 and Tabelle 5 of the 2006 <i>Funkamateur</i> article referenced earlier in these notes. The differences are small, mostly representing a rounding of values. However, Tabelle 5 is interesting since it presents an alternative set of values for frequencies above 30 MHz. Values for the upper range are 0.1 times the received voltages for HF, a change of 20 dB. A second difference is that the magazine tables omit S0.</p>
<center>
<img src="rst-1.gif" width="640" height="780" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9">
</center>
<center>
<img src="rst-2.gif" width="640" height="790" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="9">
</center>
<p>For careful reporting involving the strength of signals in a variety of circumstances, the proposed S-meter system--or a reasonable variant of it--makes eminent sense. The relevant activities include not only reporting to interfering signals and noise to regulatory agencies, but also matters such as equipment and antenna system tuning, antenna comparisons, etc. Nevertheless, one should not confuse the S-meter system and its functions from the use of the RST system in report exchanges between amateurs communicating with each other. Where the other operator's signal is in question, the RST system--rightly used--provides a very compact way of reporting a wealth of information. However, it has relied and always will rely on the training and experience of the receiving operator to set the information into the proper alpha-numeric characters to provide maximum useful information to the sender.</p>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" width="591" height="3">
</center><br>
<br>
<p><i>This item first appeared in</i> QRP Quarterly<i>, October, 1995. Updated 12-10-2001. Part 2 was added April 19, 2004, with further additions on September, 24, 2006 and November 29, 2006. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<title>Understanding and Producing Scientific and Technical Articles</title>
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<h1><img src="../images/yagicad.gif" align="left" width="125" height="62" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10"><img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="right" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10">Understanding and Producing<br>
Scientific and Technical<br>
Articles, Proposals, and Reports</h1>
</center>
<center>
<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
</center>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" width="591" height="3">
</center>
<p>As I retired and cleaned out an office of some 26 years' use, I uncovered a number of antique nuggets. I wished they had been gold and convertible into cash, but alas, they were only wisdom encapsulated. Some are more than 25 years in my possession--and may have been old when I received them. Their ultimate origins are wholly unknown, since my sources are burred photocopies of nearly as blurry photocopies. While my sight remains good enough to decipher them, I shall place them here. Read at your own peril.</p>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" align="middle" width="540" height="4">
</center>
<h3>Understanding Scientific and Technical Discussion and Literature</h3>The following list speaks for itself--and, unfortunately, for all too many of us upon occasion. Let he or she who has never used any of these expressions (or their first cousins) cast the first aspersion.
<center>
<b>A Key to Understanding Scientific Literature</b>
</center>
<pre> What he/she said What he/she meant
1. It has long been known that. . . I haven't bothered to look up the
original reference but. . .
2. Of great theoretical and Interesting to me
practical importance. . .
3. While it has not been possible The experiment did not work out,
to provide definite answers to but I figure I could at least get
these questions. . . a publication out of it. . .
4. The W-PO system was chosen as The fellow in the next lab had some
especially suitable to show already made up. . .
the predicted behavior. . .
5. Three of the samples were chosen The results on the others didn't
for detailed study. . . make sense. . .
6. Accidentally strained during Dropped on the floor. . .
mounting. . .
7. Handled with extreme care Not dropped on the floor. . .
throughout the experiment. . .
8. Typical results are shown. . . The best results are shown. . .
9. Agreement with the predicted
curve is. . .
excellent fair
good poor
satisfactory doubtful
fair imaginary
10. It is suggested that. . .
It is believed that. . .
It may be that. . . I think. . .
11. It is generally believed A couple of other guys think so
that. . . too. . .
12. It is clear that much additional a. I don't understand it. . .
work will be required before a b. My grant is up for renewal. . .
complete understanding. . .
13. Unfortunately, a quantitative a. Nobody else understands it either.
theory to account for these b. Guess the subject of my grant
results has not been formulated. proposal.
14. Correct within an order of Wrong. . .
magnitude. . .
15. Thanks are due to Joe Glotz for Glotz did the work, and Doe
assistance with the experiments explained what it meant.
and to John Doe for valuable
discussion.
16. It is intuitively obvious to Well I saw the derivation for this once,
the most casual of observers. but I can't find it now, and it is
way too complicated to add in the book,
and anyway, I'm not very casual today.
17. The derivation is left to the I couldn't find the derivation in any of my
reader. reference books, and I couldn't figure it
out, so you go figure it out! (And when you
do, please send it to me).
</pre>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" align="middle" width="540" height="4">
</center>
<h3>Buzz-Wordsmanship</h3>After recently distributing the "Keys to Understanding Scientific Discussion and Literature," I received a wonderful array of appreciative notes, equally divided between those who vaguely remembered the list and welcomed an old friend and those who had never before seen it and felt guilty for having used a column-1 expression on at least one occasion. Two separate sources sent me copies of another item originating at the same time (about a quarter century ago, I think, and likely even older--I cannot be sure because I wore out my copy using it). While equally fascinating, it had more to do with administration and management than it did with electronics of the sort that interests us.
<p>However, if necessity is the mother of invention, then play is surely the father. So let's review the original item and then see what electronic damage we may do to it.</p>
<hr>
<br>
<center>
<b>How To Win At Wordsmanship</b>
</center>
<p>After years of hacking through etymological thickets at the U.S. Public Health Service, a 63-year-old official named Philip Broughton hit upon a sure-fire method for converting frustration into fulfillment (jargonwise). Euphemistically called the Systematic Buzz Phrase Projector, Broughton's system employs a lexicon of 30 carefully chosen "buzzwords":</p>
<pre>Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
0. integrated 0. management 0. options
1. total 1. organizational 1. flexibility
2. systematized 2. monitored 2. capability
3. parallel 3. reciprocal 3. mobility
4. functional 4. digital 4. programming
5. responsive 5. logistical 5. concept
6. optional 6. transitional 6. time-phase
7. synchronized 7. incremental 7. projection
8. compatible 8. third-generation 8. hardware
9. balanced 9. policy 9. contingency</pre>
<p>The procedure is simple. Think of any three digit number, then select the corresponding buzzword from each column. For instance, number 257 produces "systematized logistical projection," a phrase that can be dropped into virtually any report with that ring of decisive, knowledgeable authority. "No one will have the remotest idea of what you are talking about," says Broughton, "but the important thing is that they're not about to admit it."</p>
<hr>
<br>
<p>Two facts struck me. First, every ham wishes he or she could come up with the key electronic invention that would solve the world's problems, make one rich beyond belief, and write one's name large in all future history books. Second, all that is needed is inspiration.</p>
<p>Since the first premise is set, all we need is a source of inspiration. That's where Broughton's word-play device comes into play. By judiciously selecting words for 3 columns, we can inspire ourselves to create the electronics of tomorrow. So I made up my list of inspirational concepts.</p>
<pre>Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
0. integrated 0. encoded 0. optimizer
1. asynchonous 1. programmable 1. converter
2. analog 2. monitored 2. reactor
3. parallel 3. reciprocal 3. transducer
4. functional 4. demodulated 4. interface
5. transferable 5. logic-based 5. buffer
6. digital 6. transformational 6. filter
7. synchronized 7. incremental 7. instrument
8. compatible 8. fifth-generation 8. regenerator
9. balanced 9. time-phase 9. generator</pre>
<p>Be careful: some 3-digit inventions may already exist, such as 654. However, I have never seen a 770 or a 334. You may revise the list to suit your special interests. But there is fertile inventive ground, even in this preliminary cut. So while you rewrite the list, I am off to the shop. I do not know today if I shall try to make an 898 or a 542.</p>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" align="middle" width="540" height="4">
</center>
<h3>Mastering the Grammar of Technical and Scientific Literature</h3>
<p>The third (and final?) entry is a set of general guidelines sufficient to lead anyone through the grammatical morass of technical writing. Specialists try to make the task seem more difficult than it is, but the following rules cover almost all of the cases you will encounter in a lifetime of writing and editing. Again, the exact origin is unknown, although the list has been plaguarized many times. One more time will likely not hurt.</p>
<center>
<b>Rules of English for Technical Article, Proposal, and Report Writers</b>
</center>
<ul>
<li>1. Don't use no double negatives.</li>
<li>2. Make each pronoun agree with their antecedent.</li>
<li>3. Join clauses good, like a conjunction should.</li>
<li>4. About them sentence fragments.</li>
<li>5. When dangling, watch them participles.</li>
<li>6. Verbs has to agree with their subject.</li>
<li>7 Just between you and I, case is important, too.</li>
<li>8. Don't write run-on sentences they are hard to read.</li>
<li>9. Don't use commas, which are not necessary.</li>
<li>10. Try to not ever split infinitives.</li>
<li>11. Its important to use your apostrophe's correctly.</li>
<li>12. Proofread your writing to see if you any words out.</li>
</ul>
<p>Enough is enough. Or is it. . .?</p>
<center>
<img src="../images/colorbar.gif" align="middle" width="540" height="4">
</center>
<p><i>Updated 7-28-1999, 10-21-2004. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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<h1><img src="../images/yagicad.gif" align="left" width="125" height="62" border="2" vspace="15" hspace="10"><img src="../images/w4rnlwwr.gif" align="right" width="99" height="83" border="2" vspace="5" hspace="10">To the Sea Again</h1>
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<h3>L. B. Cebik, W4RNL</h3>
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<p>I must go down to the sea again<br>
Where the conductivity is high.<br>
All I need is a tall array<br>
And a rotor to steer her by.</p>
<p>I must go down to a south sea isle<br>
Where the population is low,<br>
And work DX without a rest. . .<br>
--Pardon my QRO.</p>
<p>I must go down to the seaside dunes<br>
And operate in the sand.<br>
When I return, my log is full<br>
Of QSOs from every land.</p>
<p>I must go down to the sea again<br>
To watch the waves and swells,<br>
And leave to someone else the task<br>
Of answering QSLs.</p>
<p><i>(with apologies to John Masefield)</i></p>
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<p><i>Updated 08-21-2000. &COPY; L. B. Cebik, W4RNL. Data may be used for personal purposes, but may not be reproduced for publication in print or any other medium without permission of the author.</i></p>
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